Rosalind Elsie Franklin (25. Juli 1920 - 16. April 1958) [1] war ein englischer Chemiker und Röntgenkristallograph, der Beiträge zum Verständnis der molekularen Strukturen von DNA (Desoxyribonukleinsäure), RNA (Ribonukleinsäure) lieferte acid, Viren, Kohle und Graphit. [2] Obwohl ihre Arbeiten zu Kohle und Viren zu Lebzeiten geschätzt wurden, wurden ihre Beiträge zur Entdeckung der DNA-Struktur weitgehend posthum anerkannt.
Franklin wurde in einer prominenten britischen jüdischen Familie geboren und wurde an einer privaten Tagesschule am Norland Place in West London, der Lindores School für junge Damen in Sussex und der St Paul's Girls 'School in London ausgebildet. Dann studierte sie die Naturwissenschaften Tripos am Newnham College in Cambridge, an der sie 1941 ihren Abschluss machte. Sie erhielt ein Forschungsstipendium und trat im Physikalischen Chemielabor der Universität Cambridge unter Ronald George Wreyford Norrish an, der sie für seinen mangelnden Enthusiasmus enttäuschte. 19659005] Die British Coal Utilization Research Association (BCURA) bot ihr 1942 eine Forschungsstelle an und begann ihre Arbeit an Kohle. Dies half ihr, einen Doktortitel zu erwerben. 1945. [4] Sie reiste 1947 als Chercheur (Postdoktorandin) unter Jacques Mering am Laboratoire Central des Services Chimiques de l'Etat nach Paris, wo sie eine erfolgreiche Röntgenaufnahme erhielt Kristallograph Sie wurde 1951 wissenschaftliche Mitarbeiterin am King's College London und arbeitete an Röntgenbeugungsstudien, die schließlich die Doppelhelix-Theorie der DNA erleichtern würden. [5] 1953, nach zwei Jahren wegen Uneinigkeit mit ihrem Regisseur John Randall und noch mehr mit ihrem Kollegen Maurice Wilkins wurde sie gezwungen, an das Birkbeck College zu ziehen. [5] In Birkbeck bot John Desmond Bernal, Vorsitzender der Physikabteilung, ihr ein eigenes Forschungsteam an. Sie starb 1958 im Alter von 37 Jahren an Eierstockkrebs.
Franklin ist am besten für seine Arbeit an den Röntgenbeugungsbildern von DNA, insbesondere Foto 51, bekannt, während er am King's College London zur Entdeckung der DNA-Doppelhelix führte, für die James Watson, Francis Crick und Maurice Wilkins Watson schlug vor, dass Franklin idealerweise zusammen mit Wilkins einen Nobelpreis für Chemie erhalten hätte, aber obwohl es noch keine Regel gegen posthume Auszeichnungen gab, [6] das Nobelkomitee im Allgemeinen macht keine posthumen Nominierungen. [7] [8]
Nach Abschluss ihrer DNA-Arbeit führte Franklin in Birkbeck Pionierarbeit über die molekularen Strukturen von Viren aus. [9] Ihr Teammitglied Aaron Klug setzte ihre Forschung fort und gewann 1982 den Nobelpreis für Chemie.
Bildung und frühes Leben [ edit ]
Franklin wurde am 25. Juli 1920 in 50 Chepstow Villas, [10] Notting Hill, London, in eine wohlhabende und einflussreiche britisch-jüdische Familie geboren [11][12] Ihr Vater war Ellis Arthur Franklin (1894–1964), ein politisch liberaler Londoner Bankier, der am Working College der Stadt unterrichtete, und ihre Mutter war Muriel Frances Waley (1894–1976). Rosalind war die ältere Tochter und das zweite Kind in der Familie von fünf Kindern. David (geb. 1919) war der älteste Bruder; Colin (* 1923), Roland (* 1926) und Jenifer (* 1929) waren ihre jüngeren Geschwister. [13] Der Onkel ihres Vaters war Herbert Samuel (später Viscount Samuel), der 1916 Innenminister und erster praktizierender Jude war im britischen Kabinett zu dienen. [14] Ihre Tante, Helen Caroline Franklin, in der Familie als Mamie bekannt, war mit Norman de Mattos Bentwich, der im Vereinigten Königreich im britischen Mandat von Palästina als Staatsanwalt tätig war, verheiratet. Helen Caroline Franklin war in Gewerkschaftsorganisation und Frauenwahlrecht aktiv und wurde später Mitglied des London County Council. [16][17] Ihr Onkel, Hugh Franklin, war eine weitere prominente Persönlichkeit in der Stimmrechtsbewegung, obwohl seine Aktionen die Familie Franklin in Verlegenheit brachten. Rosalinds zweiter Vorname, "Elsie", war in Erinnerung an Hughs erste Frau, die 1918 an der Grippepandemie starb. [13] Ihre Familie war aktiv am Working Mens College beteiligt, wo ihr Vater die Themen Elektrizität, Magnetismus und Medizin unterrichtete Die Geschichte des Großen Krieges am Abend wurde später Vize-Principal. [18] [19]
Franklins Eltern halfen bei der Ansiedlung jüdischer Flüchtlinge aus Europa, die vor den Flüchtlingen geflüchtet waren Nazis, insbesondere aus dem Kindertransport (19459011) . [20] Sie nahmen zwei jüdische Kinder mit nach Hause, und eines davon, ein neunjähriger Österreicher, Evi Eisenstädter, teilte das Zimmer von Jenifer. [21] (Evis Vater Hans Mathias Eisenstädter war in Buchenwald inhaftiert worden, und nach der Befreiung nahm die Familie den Namen "Ellis" an.) [22] [23]
Von früher Kindheit an , Franklin zeigte außergewöhnliche schulische Fähigkeiten. Im Alter von sechs Jahren kam sie zu ihrem Bruder Roland an die Norland Place School, eine private Tagesschule in West-London. Zu dieser Zeit beschrieb ihre Tante Mamie (Helen Bentwich) sie ihrem Mann: "Rosalind ist erschreckend klug - sie verbringt ihre ganze Zeit damit, Arithmetik für das Vergnügen zu machen, und bringt ausnahmslos ihre Summen in die richtige Position." [24] Sie entwickelte sich auch früh Interesse an Cricket und Hockey. Mit neun Jahren ging sie in ein Internat, die Lindores School für junge Frauen in Sussex. [25] Die Schule befand sich in der Nähe des Meeres und die Familie wünschte sich eine gute Umgebung für ihre empfindliche Gesundheit. Sie war elf Jahre alt, als sie die St. Paul's Girls 'School in West London besuchte, eine der wenigen Mädchenschulen in London, die Physik und Chemie unterrichtete. [25][26][27] Bei St. Paul's übertraf sie sich in den Bereichen Wissenschaft, Latein [28] und Sport. [29] Sie lernte auch Deutsch und sprach fließend Französisch, eine Sprache, die sie später für nützlich halten würde. Sie übertraf ihren Unterricht und gewann jährliche Auszeichnungen. Ihre einzige pädagogische Schwäche war die Musik, für die der Schulmusikdirektor, der Komponist Gustav Holst, einst ihre Mutter fragte, ob sie an Hörproblemen oder Tonsillitis leiden könnte. [30] Mit sechs Auszeichnungen legte sie ihre Immatrikulation vor 1938 gewann sie ein Stipendium für die Universität, die School Leaving Exhibition von £ 30 pro Jahr für drei Jahre und £ 5 von ihrem Großvater. [31] Ihr Vater bat sie, das Stipendium an einen verdienten Flüchtlingsstudenten zu vergeben. [25]
Cambridge und Zweiter Weltkrieg [ edit ]
Franklin ging 1938 an das Newnham College in Cambridge und studierte Chemie im Naturwissenschaftlichen Tripos. Dort lernte sie den Spektroskopiker Bill Price kennen, der mit ihr als Labordemonstrator arbeitete und später eine ihrer älteren Kollegen am King's College London wurde. [32] 1941 erhielt sie von ihren Abschlussprüfungen die Auszeichnung zweiter Klasse. Die Auszeichnung wurde als Bachelor-Abschluss in Qualifikationen für Arbeit anerkannt. Cambridge begann mit dem Titel B.A. und MA-Abschlüsse für Frauen von 1947, und die früheren Absolventinnen erhielten diese rückwirkend. [33] In ihrem letzten Jahr in Cambridge traf sie die französische Flüchtling Adrienne Weill, eine ehemalige Schülerin von Marie Curie, die einen großen Einfluss auf ihr Leben hatte und Karriere und half ihr, ihr gesprochenes Französisch zu verbessern. [34]
Franklin erhielt ein Forschungsstipendium am Newnham College, mit dem sie in das Physikalisch-Chemische Labor der University of Cambridge wechselte, um unter Ronald zu arbeiten Norrish, der später den Nobelpreis für Chemie gewann. In ihrem einjährigen Jahr dort hatte sie nicht viel Erfolg. [35] Wie von seinem Biographen beschrieben, war Norrish "hartnäckig und beinahe pervers im Streit, überheblich und anfällig für Kritik". [36] Er konnte sich nicht für sie entscheiden woran zu arbeiten war und zu dieser Zeit starkem Trinken erlag. Franklin schrieb, dass er sie völlig verachten lasse. [37] Als sie sich aus Norrishs Labor zurückzog, erfüllte sie die Anforderungen der National Service Acts, indem sie 1942 als wissenschaftliche Hilfskraft bei der British Coal Utilization Research Association (BCURA) arbeitete. [9] Die BCURA befand sich auf dem Coombe Springs Estate in der Nähe von Kingston upon Thames in der Nähe der südwestlichen Grenze von London. Norrish fungierte als Berater des Militärs bei BCURA. John G. Bennett war der Regisseur. Marcello Pirani und Victor Goldschmidt, beide Flüchtlinge aus den Nationalsozialisten, waren Berater und Vorlesungen an der BCURA, während Franklin dort arbeitete. [2] Während ihrer BCURA-Nachforschungen blieb sie in Adrienne Weills Internat in Cambridge, bis ihre Cousine Irene Franklin sie bat, sich ihr anzuschließen ein geräumtes Haus ihres Onkels in Putney. Mit Irene meldete sie sich freiwillig als Luftwaffenwächter und machte regelmäßig Patrouillen, um das Wohlergehen der Menschen bei Luftangriffen zu sehen. [38]
Sie untersuchte die Porosität von Kohle mit Hilfe von Helium zur Bestimmung ihrer Dichte. 19659046] Dadurch entdeckte sie den Zusammenhang zwischen den feinen Einschnürungen in den Poren der Kohlen und der Permeabilität des porösen Raums. Indem sie zu dem Schluss kam, dass Substanzen mit zunehmender Temperatur nach molekularer Größe ausgestoßen wurden, half sie bei der Klassifizierung von Kohlen und der genauen Vorhersage ihrer Leistung für Kraftstoffzwecke und für die Herstellung von Kriegsgeräten wie Gasmasken. [40] Diese Arbeit war die Grundlage ihres Ph. D. Dissertation Die physikalische Chemie fester organischer Kolloide mit besonderem Bezug auf Kohle für die sie von der University of Cambridge promoviert wurde. 1945. [4] Es war auch die Basis für mehrere Arbeiten. [2]
Karriere und Forschung [
. Franklin verbrachte ihre Karriere in London und Paris.
Paris [ edit ]
Mit dem Ende des Zweiten Weltkrieges im Jahr 1945 bat Franklin Adrienne Weill um Hilfe und ließ sie von den Stellenangeboten für einen physischen Chemiker wissen, der nur wenig weiß physikalische Chemie, aber ziemlich viel über die Löcher in der Kohle ". Auf einer Konferenz im Herbst 1946 stellte Weill sie Marcel Mathieu vor, einem Direktor des Centre National de la recherche scientifique (CNRS), dem Netzwerk von Instituten, die den größten Teil der von der französischen Regierung unterstützten wissenschaftlichen Forschungslabors ausmachen. Dies führte zu ihrer Ernennung bei Jacques Mering am Laboratoire Central des Chimiques de l'État in Paris. Sie trat dem Laboratorium (19459012) (vom Stab genannt) von Mering am 14. Februar 1947 als einer der fünfzehn (19459011) Chercheurs (Forscher) bei. [42]
Mering war ein Röntgenkristallograph, der die Röntgenbeugung zur Untersuchung von Rayon und anderen amorphen Substanzen verwendete, im Gegensatz zu den Tausenden von regulären Kristallen, die mit dieser Methode untersucht wurden viele Jahre. [2] Er lehrte sie die praktischen Aspekte der Anwendung der Röntgenkristallographie auf amorphe Substanzen. Dies stellte neue Herausforderungen bei der Durchführung von Experimenten und der Interpretation der Ergebnisse. Franklin wendete sie auf weitere Probleme im Zusammenhang mit Kohle an, insbesondere auf die Änderung der Anordnung von Atomen bei der Umwandlung in Graphit. [2] Sie veröffentlichte mehrere weitere Veröffentlichungen zu dieser Arbeit, die inzwischen zu einem festen Bestandteil der Physik und Chemie geworden ist Kohle. Diese Arbeit wurde in einer Monographie von 1993 [43] und in dem regelmäßig veröffentlichten Lehrbuch Chemistry and Physics of Carbon behandelt. [44] Mering setzte die Untersuchung von Kohlenstoff in verschiedenen Formen mit Hilfe der Röntgenbeugung fort andere Methoden. [45]
King's College London [ edit ]
Im Jahr 1950 erhielt Franklin ein dreijähriges Turner & Newall-Stipendium, um am King's College London zu arbeiten. Im Januar 1951 begann sie als wissenschaftliche Mitarbeiterin in der Abteilung für Biophysik des Medical Research Council (MRC) unter der Leitung von John Randall. [46] Sie war ursprünglich für die Röntgendiffraktion von Proteinen und Lipiden in Lösung, aber Randall, berufen worden Sie richtete ihre Arbeit wegen neuartiger Entwicklungen auf DNA-Fasern um und sollte zu dieser Zeit die einzige erfahrene experimentelle Beugungsforscherin bei King's sein. [47][48] Randall machte diese Neuzuordnung, noch bevor sie bei King's anfing, wegen der Nach Pionierarbeit von Maurice Wilkins und Raymond Gosling - ein Ph.D. Student wurde beauftragt, ihr zu helfen [49]
Wilkins und Gosling hatten selbst mit groben Geräten ein hervorragendes Beugungsbild von DNA erhalten, das weiteres Interesse an diesem Molekül hervorrief. Sie hatten seit Mai 1950 eine Röntgenbeugungsanalyse der DNA in der Abteilung durchgeführt, aber Randall hatte ihnen nicht mitgeteilt, dass er Franklin gebeten hatte, sowohl die DNA-Diffraktionsarbeit als auch die Anleitung von Goslings These zu übernehmen. [50] Randalls Mangel Die Kommunikation über diese Neuzuordnung trug wesentlich zu der gut dokumentierten Reibung bei, die sich zwischen Wilkins und Franklin entwickelte. [51]
Franklin, die mit Gosling zusammenarbeitete, [52] begann ihre Expertise in Röntgendiffraktionstechniken anzuwenden auf die Struktur der DNA. Sie verwendete eine neue, von Wilkins bestellte Feinfokus-Röntgenröhre und Mikrokamera, die sie jedoch verfeinerte, justierte und sorgfältig fokussierte. Auf der Grundlage ihres physikalisch-chemischen Hintergrunds manipulierte sie auch die kritische Hydratation ihrer Proben geschickt. [53] Als Wilkins nach dieser verbesserten Technik fragte, antwortete sie in Begriffen, die Wilkins als beleidigend betrachteten, als Franklin "eine kühle Überlegenheit" hatte. [54]
Franklin präsentierte ihre Daten bei einer Vorlesung im November 1951 im King's College London. In ihren Vorlesungsunterlagen schrieb Franklin folgendes [55]:
"Die Ergebnisse legen eine helikale Struktur nahe (die sehr dicht gepackt sein muss), die 2, 3 oder 4 koaxiale Nukleinsäureketten pro helicaler Einheit enthält und die Phosphatgruppen nahe an der Außenseite hat."
Franklins Angewohnheit, den Menschen intensiv in die Augen zu schauen und dabei kurz, ungeduldig und direkt viele ihrer Kollegen zu beunruhigen. Im Gegensatz dazu war Wilkins sehr schüchtern und rechnete langsam in der Sprache, während er es vermied, jemandem direkt in die Augen zu sehen. [56] Trotz der intensiven Atmosphäre entdeckten Franklin und Gosling, dass es zwei Formen von DNA gab: bei hoher Luftfeuchtigkeit ( im nassen Zustand) wurde die DNA-Faser lang und dünn; Wenn es getrocknet war, wurde es kurz und fett. [57] [58]
Franklin nannte diese beiden Formen "B" bzw. "A". (Die biologischen Funktionen von A-DNA wurden erst 60 Jahre später entdeckt. [59]) Aufgrund des intensiven Persönlichkeitskonflikts zwischen Franklin und Wilkins teilte Randall [60] die Arbeit über DNA. Franklin wählte die datenreiche "A" -Form, während Wilkins die "B" -Form [60][61] auswählte, da Wilkins 'vorläufige Bilder seiner selbstgeschriebenen Biografie zufolge angedeutet hatten, es könnte helikal sein. Die von Franklin zu dieser Zeit aufgenommenen Röntgenbeugungsbilder, einschließlich des Wahrzeichens Photo 51 wurden von John Desmond Bernal als "eine der schönsten Röntgenaufnahmen aller Substanzen" bezeichnet. [57]
Ende 1951 war es bei King allgemein allgemein bekannt, dass die B-Form von DNA eine Helix war, aber nachdem sie im Mai 1952 ein asymmetrisches Bild aufgenommen hatte, war Franklin nicht überzeugt, dass das A DNA-Form war eine Helix. [62] Im Juli 1952 brachten Franklin und Gosling als praktischen Witz über Wilkins (der häufig seine Ansicht formulierte, beide Formen der DNA seien helikal zu sein), eine Bestattungsnachricht heraus, in der er den "Tod" der helicalen kristallinen DNA (A-DNA) bedauerte. [63] Im Jahr 1952 arbeiteten sie daran, die Patterson-Funktion auf die von ihnen produzierten Röntgenbilder von DNA anzuwenden. [64] Dies war ein langer und arbeitsintensiver Ansatz, der jedoch wichtige Einblicke in die Struktur des Moleküls gewähren würde. [65] [66]
Im Januar 1953 hatte Franklin ihre widersprüchlichen Daten in Einklang gebracht. Schlussfolgernd, dass beide DNA-Formen zwei Helices hatten und begonnen hatten, eine Reihe von drei Entwurfsmanuskripten zu schreiben, von denen zwei ein doppelt helikales DNA-Rückgrat enthielten (siehe unten). Ihre beiden A-DNA-Manuskripte erreichten Acta Crystallographica am 6. März 1953 in Kopenhagen, einen Tag bevor Crick und Watson ihr Modell für B-DNA fertiggestellt hatten. Sie muss sie geschickt haben, während das Cambridge-Team ihr Modell baute, und hatte sie sicherlich geschrieben, bevor sie von ihrer Arbeit wusste. [67] Am 8. Juli 1953 modifizierte sie einen dieser "in Proof" - Acta Artikel, "im Licht der jüngsten Arbeit" der King's und Cambridge Forschungsteams. [68]
The Das dritte Entwurfspapier befand sich mit der B-Form von DNA vom 17. März 1953, die Jahre später unter ihren Papieren entdeckt wurde [69] von Franklins Birkbeck-Kollegen Aaron Klug. Anschließend veröffentlichte er eine Bewertung der engen Korrelation des Entwurfs mit dem Dritten des ursprünglichen Trios vom 25. April 1953 Nature DNA-Artikeln. [70] Klug entwarf dieses Papier als Ergänzung zu seinem ersten Artikel, in dem er Franklins erheblichen Beitrag zur DNA-Struktur verteidigte. [71] Er hatte diesen ersten Artikel als Antwort auf das unvollständige Bild von Franklins Werk geschrieben, das in Watsons Memoiren von 1968 The Double Helix dargestellt ist.
Wie in The Double Helix am 30. Januar 1953 anschaulich beschrieben, reiste Watson mit einem Vorabdruck von Linus Paulings unangemessenem Vorschlag für die DNA-Struktur zu King. Da Wilkins nicht in seinem Büro war, ging Watson zu Franklins Labor mit seiner dringenden Nachricht, dass sie alle zusammenarbeiten sollten, bevor Pauling seinen Fehler entdeckte. Der unbeeindruckte Franklin wurde wütend, als Watson vorschlug, dass er nicht wusste, wie er seine eigenen Daten interpretieren sollte. Eilig zog sich Watson zurück und zog sich in Wilkins zurück, der von der Aufregung angezogen worden war. Wilkins befand sich mit seinem gehetzten Freund und zeigte dann Watson Franklins DNA-Röntgenbild. [72] Watson wiederum zeigte Wilkins ein Vorveröffentlichungsmanuskript von Pauling und Corey, das eine DNA-Struktur enthielt, die bemerkenswerterweise ihrem ersten falschen Modell entsprach. [73]
DNA-Struktur [ edit ]
Im Februar 1953 hatten James Watson und Francis Crick vom Cavendish Laboratory der Universität Cambridge begonnen, ein molekulares Modell der B-Form von DNA zu bauen, wobei Daten verwendet wurden, die den beiden Teams von King's zur Verfügung standen. Ein Großteil ihrer Daten wurde direkt von Wilkins und Franklin bei King's abgeleitet. Franklins Forschungen waren vor ihrem Umzug nach Birkbeck im Februar 1953 abgeschlossen, und ihre Angaben waren kritisch. [74] Bei der Aufklärung der Struktur der Alphahelixe durch Linus Pauling im Jahr 1951 [61] [75] wurde Modellbau erfolgreich angewendet. Franklin lehnte jedoch ab, theoretische Modelle vorzeitig zu bauen, bis ausreichende Daten zur Verfügung standen Modellbau. Sie war der Ansicht, dass der Bau eines Modells erst unternommen werden sollte, nachdem genug von der Struktur bekannt war. [62] [76]
Immer vorsichtig, wollte sie die irreführenden Möglichkeiten beseitigen. Fotos ihres Birkbeck-Arbeitstisches zeigen, dass sie routinemäßig kleine molekulare Modelle verwendete, sicherlich jedoch keine Modelle, die in Cambridge erfolgreich für DNA eingesetzt wurden. Mitte Februar 1953 überreichte Cricks Berater für Thesen, Max Perutz, Crick eine Kopie eines Berichts, der für einen Besuch des Medical Research Council für Biophysik des Medical Research Council bei King's im Dezember 1952 geschrieben worden war und viele kristallklare Berechnungen von Franklin enthielt. [77] [77]
Da Franklin beschlossen hatte, zum Birkbeck College zu wechseln, und Randall darauf bestanden hatte, dass alle DNA-Arbeiten bei King bleiben mussten, erhielt Wilkins Kopien von Franklins Beugungsfotografien von Gosling. Am 28. Februar 1953 hatten Watson und Crick das Gefühl, sie hätten das Problem so gelöst, dass Crick (in der örtlichen Kneipe) verkündete, "das Geheimnis des Lebens gefunden zu haben". [78] Sie wussten jedoch, dass sie ihr Modell vervollständigen müssen, bevor sie sich sicher sein können. [79]
Watson und Crick bauten ihr Modell am 7. März 1953, einen Tag, bevor sie einen Brief von Wilkins erhielten, in dem es heißt Franklin ging endlich und sie konnten "alle Hände an die Pumpe legen". [80] Dies war auch einen Tag, nachdem Franklins zwei A-DNA-Papiere Acta Crystallographica erreicht hatten. Wilkins kam das Modell in der folgenden Woche, so Franklins Biografin Brenda Maddox am 12. März, und informierte Gosling angeblich über seine Rückkehr zu King's. [81]
Es ist ungewiss, wie lange es dauerte Gosling informiert Franklin über Birkbeck, aber ihr ursprüngliches B-DNA-Manuskript vom 17. März spiegelt keine Kenntnis des Cambridge-Modells wider. Franklin modifizierte diesen Entwurf später, bevor er ihn als dritter im Trio vom 25. April 1953 Nature veröffentlichte. Am 18. März [82] schrieb Wilkins, als er eine Kopie ihres vorläufigen Manuskripts erhielt, folgendes: "Ich glaube, Sie sind ein paar alte Schurken, aber Sie haben vielleicht etwas". [83]
Crick und Watson veröffentlichten ihr Modell dann in Nature am 25. April 1953 in einem Artikel, der die Doppelhelix-Struktur von DNA beschreibt, wobei nur eine Fußnote "die Stimulierung" angab durch allgemeine Kenntnis des "unveröffentlichten" Beitrags von Franklin und Wilkins. [84] Obwohl es das absolute Minimum war, hatten sie gerade genug spezifische Kenntnisse der Daten von Franklin und Gosling, auf die sie ihr Modell stützen konnten. Als Ergebnis einer Vereinbarung, die von den beiden Labordirektoren getroffen wurde, wurden Artikel von Wilkins und Franklin, die ihre Röntgenbeugungsdaten enthielten, modifiziert und dann anscheinend in derselben Ausgabe von Nature modifiziert und veröffentlicht Nur zur Unterstützung des theoretischen Artikels von Crick und Watson, der ein Modell für die B-Form von DNA vorschlug. [85] [86]
Wochen später, am 10. April, schrieb Franklin an Crick für die Erlaubnis, ihr Modell zu sehen. [87] Franklin behielt ihre Skepsis gegenüber vorzeitigem Modellbau auch nach dem Sehen des Watson-Crick-Modells bei und blieb unbeeindruckt. Sie soll gesagt haben: "Es ist sehr hübsch, aber wie werden sie es beweisen?" Als experimenteller Wissenschaftler scheint Franklin daran interessiert gewesen zu sein, weitaus mehr Beweise zu produzieren, bevor er ein nachweislich vorgeschlagenes Modell veröffentlicht. Daher entsprach ihre Antwort auf das Watson-Crick-Modell ihrem vorsichtigen Umgang mit der Wissenschaft. [88] Die meisten Wissenschaftler zögerten einige Jahre, bevor sie den Vorschlag der Doppelhelix akzeptierten. Zunächst waren die Genetiker vor allem aufgrund der offensichtlichen genetischen Implikationen für das Modell bekannt. [89] [90] [91]
Birkbeck College ] 19659100] Franklin verließ das King's College in London Mitte März 1953 für das Birkbeck College. Dies war ein seit einiger Zeit geplanter Schritt, den sie (in einem Brief an Adrienne Weill in Paris) als "Umzug von einem Palast in die Slums" bezeichnete. ... aber immer angenehmer. " [92] Sie wurde vom Vorsitzenden der Physikabteilung, John Desmond Bernal, [93] rekrutiert, einem Kristallographen, der als Kommunist bekannt war und für die Förderung weiblicher Kristallographen bekannt war . Ihre neuen Laboratorien befanden sich am 21 Torrington Square, einem von zwei verfallenen und beengten georgianischen Häusern, in denen verschiedene Abteilungen untergebracht waren. Franklin nahm Bernal häufig zur Verantwortung, weil er einige der anderen Labormitarbeiter unbesonnen benahm, vor allem nachdem Arbeiter in der Apothekenabteilung ihr Labor im ersten Stock einmal mit Wasser geflutet hatten. [94] Trotz Nach den Abschiedswörtern von Bernal, um ihr Interesse an Nukleinsäuren zu beenden, half sie Gosling, seine Doktorarbeit zu beenden, obwohl sie nicht mehr seine offizielle Aufsichtsperson war. Zusammen veröffentlichten sie den ersten Nachweis einer Doppelhelix in der A-Form von DNA in der Ausgabe vom 25. Juli Nature [95] . Ende 1954 sicherte sich Bernal Franklin die Finanzierung des Agricultural Research Council (ARC), mit dem sie als leitende Wissenschaftlerin ihre eigene Forschungsgruppe beaufsichtigen konnte. [96] [97] John Finch, ein Physikstudent am King's College in London, schloss sich der Gruppe von Franklin an, gefolgt von Kenneth Holmes, einem Absolventen von Cambridge im Juli 1955. Trotz der Gelder des ARC schrieb Franklin an Bernal, dass die bestehenden Einrichtungen für die Durchführung der Forschung sehr ungeeignet seien. Mein Schreibtisch und mein Labor befinden sich im vierten Stock, meine Röntgenröhre im Untergeschoss, und ich bin für die Arbeit von vier Personen verantwortlich, die im Untergeschoss, im ersten und zweiten Stock auf zwei verschiedenen Treppenhäusern verteilt sind. " [98]
Franklin fuhr fort, eine weitere wichtige Nukleinsäure, die RNA, zu erforschen, ein Molekül, das ebenso wichtig für das Leben wie die DNA ist. Sie untersuchte erneut die Struktur des Tabakmosaikvirus (TMV), eines RNA-Virus, mit Hilfe der Röntgenkristallographie. Ihr Treffen mit Aaron Klug Anfang 1954 führte zu einer langjährigen und erfolgreichen Zusammenarbeit. Klug hatte gerade damals am Trinity College in Cambridge promoviert und war Ende 1953 zu Birkbeck gekommen. 1955 veröffentlichte Franklin ihre ersten großen Arbeiten zu TMV in Nature in denen sie beschrieb, dass alle TMV-Viruspartikel von waren die gleiche Länge. [99] Dies stand in direktem Widerspruch zu den Vorstellungen des berühmten Virologen Norman Pirie, obwohl sich ihre Beobachtung letztlich als richtig erwies. [100]
Franklin übertrug die Studie der gesamten Struktur des TMV ihrem Doktoranden Holmes. Sie entdeckten bald (veröffentlicht 1956), dass die Abdeckung von TMV Proteinmoleküle war, die in Helices angeordnet waren. [101] Ihr Kollege Klug arbeitete mit seinem Schüler John Finch an sphärischen Viren, wobei Franklin die Arbeit koordinierte und beaufsichtigte. [102] Ab 1956 veröffentlichten sie als Team erste wegweisende Werke auf TMV, [103] Gurkenvirus 4 und Rübengelb-Mosaikvirus. [104]
, James Watt, vom National Coal Board subventioniert und war jetzt Leiter der ARC-Gruppe in Birkbeck. [105] Die Birkbeck-Teammitglieder arbeiteten weiter an RNA-Viren, die mehrere Pflanzen befallen, darunter Kartoffeln, Rüben, Tomaten und Erbsen. [106] 1955 wurde das Team von einem amerikanischen Postdoktoranden Donald Caspar unterstützt. Er arbeitete an der genauen Lokalisierung von RNA-Molekülen in TMV. 1956 veröffentlichten er und Franklin in der Ausgabe vom 10. März Nature einzelne, aber ergänzende Artikel, in denen sie zeigten, dass die RNA in TMV entlang der inneren Oberfläche des hohlen Virus gewickelt ist. [107] [108] Caspar war kein begeisterter Schriftsteller, und Franklin musste das gesamte Manuskript für ihn schreiben. [109]
1957 lief ihr Forschungsstipendium des ARC aus und erhielt eine einjährige Verlängerung, die im März endete 1958. Sie beantragte einen neuen Zuschuss des US-Gesundheitsdienstes der National Institutes of Health, der für drei Jahre 10.000 £ bewilligte, der größte jemals in Birkbeck erhaltene Fonds. [110] [111] In ihrem Förderantrag erwähnte Franklin ihr neues Interesse an der Tiervirusforschung. Im Vorjahr hatte Franklin die University of California, Berkeley, besucht, wo Kollegen ihrer Gruppe vorgeschlagen hatten, das Polio-Virus zu untersuchen. [112] Sie erhielt Bernals Zustimmung im Juli 1957, obwohl ernsthafte Bedenken laut wurden, nachdem sie ihre Absicht bekannt gegeben hatte, live zu forschen, anstatt getötetes Polio-Virus in Birkbeck zu töten. Schließlich arrangierte Bernal, dass das Virus während der Forschung der Gruppe sicher an der Londoner Schule für Hygiene und Tropenmedizin aufbewahrt wurde. Mit ihrer Gruppe begann Franklin dann, die Struktur des Poliovirus zu entschlüsseln, während es sich in einem kristallinen Zustand befand. Sie versuchte, die Viruskristalle für Röntgenuntersuchungen in Kapillarröhrchen zu montieren, musste jedoch ihre Arbeit wegen ihres rapiden Gesundheitsversagens beenden. [113]
Expo 58, die erste große internationale Messe nach dem Zweiten Weltkrieg sollte er 1958 in Brüssel stattfinden. [114] [115] Franklin wurde eingeladen, ein fünf Meter hohes TMV-Modell herzustellen, das sie 1957 startete. Zu ihren Materialien gehörten Tischtennisbälle und Kunststoff-Fahrradlenkergriffe. [116] Die Weltausstellung in Brüssel mit einer Ausstellung ihres Virenmodells im International Science Pavilion wurde am 17. April einen Tag nach ihrem Tod eröffnet. [117]
Nach Franklins Tod trat Klug ihr Nachfolger als Gruppe an Anführer, und er, Finch und Holmes forschten weiter nach der Struktur des Polio-Virus. Es gelang ihnen schließlich, äußerst detaillierte Röntgenbilder des Virus zu erhalten. Im Juni 1959 veröffentlichten Klug und Finch die Ergebnisse der Gruppe und enthüllten, dass das Polio-Virus ikosaedrische Symmetrie aufweist, und im selben Artikel wurde die Möglichkeit vorgeschlagen, dass alle sphärischen Viren die gleiche Symmetrie besitzen, da sie die größtmögliche Anzahl (60) der Viren ermöglichen identische Struktureinheiten. [118] Das Team zog 1962 in das Laboratorium für Molekularbiologie in Cambridge, 19459162, 19460062, 19459006, und die alten Laboratorien am Torrington Square wurden vier Jahre später, im Mai 1966, abgerissen. [120]
Persönliches Leben [ edit ]
Franklin wurde am besten als Agnostiker beschrieben. [121] Ihr Mangel an religiösem Glauben stammte offenbar nicht aus dem Einfluss einer anderen Person, sondern aus ihrem eigenen Denken. Ihre Skepsis entwickelte sie schon als kleines Kind. Ihre Mutter erinnerte sich daran, dass sie sich weigerte, an die Existenz Gottes zu glauben, und sagte: "Nun, woher wissen Sie, dass er nicht sie ist?" [122] Später machte sie ihre Position klar basierend auf ihren wissenschaftlichen Erfahrungen und schrieb 1940 an ihren Vater:
[S]cience and everyday life cannot and should not be separated. Science, for me, gives a partial explanation of life ... I do not accept your definition of faith i.e. belief in life after death ... Your faith rests on the future of yourself and others as individuals, mine in the future and fate of our successors. It seems to me that yours is the more selfish ...[123] [as to] the question of a creator. A creator of what? ... I see no reason to believe that a creator of protoplasm or primeval matter, if such there be, has any reason to be interested in our insignificant race in a tiny corner of the universe.[124]
She however did not abandon Jewish traditions. As the only Jewish student at Lindores School, she had Hebrew lessons on her own while her friends went to church.[125] She joined the Jewish Society while in her first term at Newnham College, Cambridge, out of respect of her grandfather's request.[126] She confided to her sister that she was "always consciously a Jew".[124]
Franklin loved travelling abroad, particularly trekking. She first "qualified" at Christmas 1929 for a vacation at Menton, France, where her grandfather went to escape English winter.[127] Her family frequently spent vacations in Wales or Cornwall. A trip to France in 1938 gave her a lasting love for France and its language. She considered the French lifestyle as "vastly superior to that of English".[128] In contrast, she described English people as having "vacant stupid faces and childlike complacency".[129] Her family was almost stuck in Norway in 1939, as World War II was declared on their way home.[130] In another instance, she trekked the French Alps with Jean Kerslake in 1946, which almost cost her her life. She slipped off on a slope, and was barely rescued.[131] But she wrote to her mother, "I am quite sure I could wander happily in France forever. I love the people, the country and the food."[132]
She made several professional trips to US, and was particularly jovial among her American friends and constantly displayed her sense of humour. William Ginoza of the University of California, Los Angeles later recalled that she was the opposite of Watson's description of her, and as Maddox comments, Americans enjoyed her "sunny side".[133]
In his book The Double Helix, Watson provides his first-person account of the search for and discovery of DNA. He paints a sympathetic but sometimes critical portrait of Franklin. He praises her intellect and scientific acumen, but portrays her as difficult to work with and careless with her appearance. After introducing her in the book as “Rosalind,” he writes that he and his male colleagues usually referred to her as "Rosy", the name people at King's College London used behind her back.[134] She did not want to be called by that name because she had a great-aunt Rosy. In the family, she was called "Ros".[135] To others, she was simply "Rosalind". She made it clear to an American visiting friend Dorothea Raacke, while sitting with her at Crick's table in The Eagle pub in Cambridge: Raacke asked her how she was to be called and she replied "I'm afraid it will have to be Rosalind", adding "Most definitely not Rosy."[136]
She often expressed her political views. She initially blamed Winston Churchill for inciting the war, but later admired him for his speeches. She actively supported Professor John Ryle as an independent candidate for parliament in 1940, but he was unsuccessful.[137]
She did not seem to have an intimate relationship with anyone, and always kept her deepest personal feelings to herself. After her younger days, she avoided close friendship with the opposite sex. Once her cousins visited them, she paid Roland to accompany them.[128] In her later years, Evi Ellis, who had shared her bedroom when a child refugee and who was then married to Ernst Wohlgemuth[23] and had moved to Notting Hill from Chicago, tried matchmaking her with Ralph Miliband but failed. Franklin once told Evi that her flatmate asked her for a drink, but she did not get the intention.[138] She was quite infatuated by her French mentor Mering, who had a wife and a mistress.[132] Mering also admitted that he was captivated by her "intelligence and beauty".[139] According to Sayre, she did confess her feeling for Mering when she was undergoing surgery, but her family denied this. But Mering wept when he visited her later,[137] and destroyed all her letters.[140]
Her closest personal affair was probably with her once post-doctoral student Donald Caspar. In 1956, she visited him at his home in Colorado after her tour to University of California, Berkeley, and she was known to remark later that Caspar was one "she might have loved, might have married". In her letter to Sayre, she described him as "an ideal match".[141]
Illness and death[edit]
In mid-1956, while on a work-related trip to the United States, Franklin first began to suspect a health problem. While in New York she found difficulty in zipping her skirt; her stomach had bulged. Back in London she consulted Mair Livingstone, who asked her, "You're not pregnant?" to which she retorted, "I wish I were." But her diagnosis report stated that it was not pregnancy, and her case was marked "URGENT".[142] An operation on 4 September of the same year revealed two tumours in her abdomen.[143] After this period and other periods of hospitalization, Franklin spent time convalescing with various friends and family members. These included Anne Sayre, Francis Crick, his wife Odile, with whom Franklin had formed a strong friendship,[136] and finally with the Roland and Nina Franklin family where Rosalind's nieces and nephews bolstered her spirits.
Franklin chose not to stay with her parents because her mother's uncontrollable grief and crying upset her too much. Even while undergoing cancer treatment, Franklin continued to work, and her group continued to produce results – seven papers in 1956 and six more in 1957.[144] At the end of 1957, Franklin again fell ill and she was admitted to the Royal Marsden Hospital. On 2 December, she made her will. She named her three brothers as executors and made her colleague Aaron Klug the principal beneficiary, who would receive £3,000 and her Austin car. Her other friends Mair Livingstone would get £2,000, Anne Piper £1,000, and her nurse Miss Griffith £250. The remainder of the estate was to be used for charities.[145]
She returned to work in January 1958, and she was given a promotion to Research Associate in Biophysics on 25 February.[146] She fell ill again on 30 March, and she died on 16 April 1958, in Chelsea, London,[147][148] of bronchopneumonia, secondary carcinomatosis, and ovarian cancer. Exposure to X-ray radiation is sometimes considered to be a possible factor in her illness.[149]
Other members of her family have died of cancer, and the incidence of gynaecological cancer is known to be disproportionately high among Ashkenazi Jews.[150] Her death certificate states: A Research Scientist, Spinster, Daughter of Ellis Arthur Franklin, a Banker.[151] She was interred on 17 April 1958 in the family plot at Willesden United Synagogue Cemetery at Beaconsfield Road in London Borough of Brent. The inscription on her tombstone reads:[152][153]
IN MEMORY OF
ROSALIND ELSIE FRANKLIN
מ' רחל בת ר' יהודה [Rochel/Rachel daughter of Yehuda, her Hebrew name]
DEARLY LOVED ELDER DAUGHTER OF
ELLIS AND MURIEL FRANKLIN
25TH JULY 1920 – 16TH APRIL 1958
SCIENTIST
HER RESEARCH AND DISCOVERIES ON
VIRUSES REMAIN OF LASTING BENEFIT
TO MANKIND
ת נ צ ב ה [Hebrew initials for "her soul shall be bound in the bundle of life"]
Controversies after death[edit]
Various controversies surrounding Rosalind Franklin came to light following her death.
Allegations of sexism[edit]
Anne Sayre, Franklin's friend and one of her biographers, stated in her book Rosalind Franklin and DNA, "In 1951 ... King's College London as an institution, was not distinguished for the welcome that it offered to women ... Rosalind ... was unused to purdah [a religious and social institution of female seclusion] ... there was one other woman scientist on the laboratory staff".[154] Andrzej Stasiak states "Sayre's book became widely cited in feminist circles for exposing rampant sexism in science."[155] Farooq Hussain states "there were seven women in the biophysics department ... Jean Hanson became an FRS, Dame Honor B. Fell, Director of Strangeways Laboratory, supervised the biologists".[156] Maddox states, "Randall ... did have many women on his staff ... they found him ... sympathetic and helpful."[157]
Sayre states "that while the male staff at King's lunched in a large, comfortable, rather clubby dining room" the female staff of all ranks "lunched in the student's hall or away from the premises".[158][159] Elkin states that most of the MRC group typically ate lunch together (including Franklin) in the mixed dining room discussed below.[56] And Maddox states, of Randall, "He liked to see his flock, men and women, come together for morning coffee, and at lunch in the joint dining room, where he ate with them nearly every day."[157] Francis Crick also commented that "her colleagues treated men and women scientists alike."[160]
Sayre also discusses at length Franklin's struggle in pursuing science, particularly her father's concern about women in academic professions.[161] This account had been taken to accuse Ellis Franklin of sexism against his daughter. A good deal of information explicitly claims that he strongly opposed her entering Newnham College.[162][163][164][165] Franklin's Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) biography goes further by stating that he refused to pay her fees, and that an aunt stepped in for her.[166] Her sister Jenifer Glynn explains that these stories are myths, and that her parents fully supported Franklin's entire career.[167]
Sexism is said to pervade the memoir of one peer, James Watson, in his book The Double Helix published 10 years after Franklin's death and after Watson had returned from Cambridge to Harvard.[168] His Cambridge colleague, Peter Pauling, wrote in a letter, "Morris [sic] Wilkins is supposed to be doing this work; Miss Franklin is evidently a fool."[169] Crick acknowledges later, "I'm afraid we always used to adopt – let's say, a patronizing attitude towards her."[170]
Glynn accuses Sayre of making her sister a feminist heroine,[171] and Watson's The Double Helix as the root of what she calls "Rosalind Industry". She conjectures that these alleged sexism stories would "have embarrassed her [Rosalind Franklin] almost as much as Watson's account would have upset her",[167] and declared that "she was never a feminist."[172] Klug and Crick also concurred that she was definitely not a feminist.[173]
Franklin's letter to her parents in January 1939 is often taken as reflecting her own prejudiced attitude and that she was "not immune to the sexism rampant in these circles." In it she remarked one lecturer as "very good, though female."[174] But as Maddox explains, it was more of circumstantial comment rather than a gender bias. It was more of an admiration because at the time woman teachers of science were a rarity. She in fact laughed at men who were embarrassed by the appointment of the first female professor Dorothy Garrod.[175]
Contribution to the model of DNA[edit]
Rosalind Franklin's first important contributions to the model popularised by Crick and Watson was her lecture at the seminar in November 1951, where she presented to those present, among them Watson, the two forms of the molecule, type A and type B, her position being that the phosphate units are located in the external part of the molecule. She also specified the amount of water to be found in the molecule in accordance with other parts of it, data that have considerable importance in terms of the stability of the molecule. Franklin was the first to discover and formulate these facts, which in fact constituted the basis for all later attempts to build a model of the molecule. However, Watson, at the time ignorant of the chemistry, failed to comprehend the crucial information, and this led to construction of a wrong model.[176]
The other contribution included an X-ray photograph of B-DNA (called Photo 51),[177] that was briefly shown to Watson by Wilkins in January 1953,[178][179] and a report written for an MRC biophysics committee visit to King's in December 1952 which was shown by Perutz at the Cavendish Laboratory to both Crick and Watson. This MRC report contained data from the King's group, including some of Franklin's and Gosling's work, and was given to Crick – who was working on his thesis on haemoglobin structure – by his thesis supervisor Perutz, a member of the visiting committee.[180][181]
Sayre's biography of Franklin contains a story[182] alleging that the photograph 51 in question was shown to Watson by Wilkins without Franklin's permission,[155][183][184] and that this constituted a case of bad science ethics.[185] Others dispute this story, asserting that Wilkins had been given photograph 51 by Franklin's Ph.D. student Gosling because she was leaving King's to work at Birkbeck, and there was allegedly nothing untoward in this transfer of data to Wilkins[186][187] because Director Randall had insisted that all DNA work belonged exclusively to King's and had instructed Franklin in a letter to even stop working on it and submit her data.[188] Also, it was implied by Horace Freeland Judson, that Maurice Wilkins had taken the photograph out of Franklin's drawer, but this is also said to be incorrect.[189]
Likewise, Perutz saw "no harm" in showing an MRC report containing the conclusions of Franklin and Gosling's X-ray data analysis to Crick, since it had not been marked as confidential, although "The report was not expected to reach outside eyes".[190] Indeed, after the publication of Watson's The Double Helix exposed Perutz's act, he received so many letters questioning his judgment that he felt the need to both answer them all[191] and to post a general statement in Science excusing himself on the basis of being "inexperienced and casual in administrative matters".[192]
Perutz also claimed that the MRC information was already made available to the Cambridge team when Watson had attended Franklin's seminar in November 1951. A preliminary version of much of the important material contained in the 1952 December MRC report had been presented by Franklin in a talk she had given in November 1951, which Watson had attended but not understood.[67][193]
The Perutz letter was as said one of three letters, published with letters by Wilkins and Watson, which discussed their various contributions. Watson clarified the importance of the data obtained from the MRC report as he had not recorded these data while attending Franklin's lecture in 1951. The upshot of all this was that when Crick and Watson started to build their model in February 1953 they were working with critical parameters that had been determined by Franklin in 1951, and which she and Gosling had significantly refined in 1952, as well as with published data and other very similar data to those available at King's. It was generally believed that Franklin was never aware that her work had been used during construction of the model,[194] but Gosling asserted in his 2013 interview that, "Yes. Oh, she did know about that."[195]
Recognition of her contribution to the model of DNA[edit]
Upon the completion of their model, Crick and Watson had invited Wilkins to be a co-author of their paper describing the structure.[196] Wilkins turned down this offer, as he had taken no part in building the model.[197] He later expressed regret that greater discussion of co-authorship had not taken place as this might have helped to clarify the contribution the work at King's had made to the discovery.[198] There is no doubt that Franklin's experimental data were used by Crick and Watson to build their model of DNA in 1953. Some, including Maddox, have explained this citation omission by suggesting that it may be a question of circumstance, because it would have been very difficult to cite the unpublished work from the MRC report they had seen.[81]
Indeed, a clear timely acknowledgment would have been awkward, given the unorthodox manner in which data were transferred from King's to Cambridge. However, methods were available. Watson and Crick could have cited the MRC report as a personal communication or else cited the Acta articles in press, or most easily, the third Nature paper that they knew was in press. One of the most important accomplishments of Maddox's widely acclaimed biography is that Maddox made a well-received case for inadequate acknowledgement. "Such acknowledgement as they gave her was very muted and always coupled with the name of Wilkins".[199]
Fifteen years after the fact, the first clear recitation of Franklin's contribution appeared as it permeated Watson's account, The Double Helixalthough it was buried under descriptions of Watson's (often quite negative) regard towards Franklin during the period of their work on DNA. This attitude is epitomized in the confrontation between Watson and Franklin over a preprint of Pauling's mistaken DNA manuscript.[200] Watson's words impelled Sayre to write her rebuttal, in which the entire chapter nine, "Winner Take All" has the structure of a legal brief dissecting and analyzing the topic of acknowledgement.[201]
Sayre's early analysis was often ignored because of perceived feminist overtones in her book. Watson and Crick did not cite the X-ray diffraction work of Wilkins and Franklin in their original paper, though they admit having "been stimulated by a knowledge of the general nature of the unpublished experimental results and ideas of Dr. M. H. F. Wilkins, Dr. R. E. Franklin and their co-workers at King's College London".[84] In fact, Watson and Crick cited no experimental data at all in support of their model. Franklin and Gosling's publication of the DNA X-ray image, in the same issue of Natureserved as the principal evidence:
Thus our general ideas are not inconsistent with the model proposed by Watson and Crick in the preceding communication.[202]
Nobel Prize[edit]
Franklin was never nominated for a Nobel Prize.[203][204] Her work was a crucial part in the discovery of DNA's structure, which along with subsequent related work led to Francis Crick, James Watson, and Maurice Wilkins being awarded a Nobel Prize in 1962.[205] She had died in 1958, and during her lifetime the DNA structure was not considered to be fully proven. It took Wilkins and his colleagues about seven years to collect enough data to prove and refine the proposed DNA structure. Moreover, its biological significance, as proposed by Watson and Crick, was not established. General acceptance for the DNA double helix and its function did not start until late in the 1950s, leading to Nobel nominations in 1960, 1961, and 1962 for Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, and in 1962 for Nobel Prize in Chemistry.[206] The first breakthrough was from Matthew Meselson and Franklin Stahl in 1958, who experimentally showed the DNA replication of a bacterium Escherichia coli.[207] Now known as Meselson–Stahl experiment, DNA was found to replicate into two double-stranded helices, with each helix having one of the original DNA strands. This DNA replication was firmly established by 1961 after further demonstration in other species,[208] and of the stepwise chemical reaction.[209][210] According to the 1961 Crick–Monod letter, this experimental proof, along with Wilkins having initiated the DNA diffraction work, were the reasons why Crick felt that Wilkins should be included in the DNA Nobel Prize.[211]
In 1962 the Nobel Prize was subsequently awarded to Crick, Watson, and Wilkins.[9][212][213] Nobel rules prohibit posthumous nominations or splitting of Prizes more than three ways.[214][215] The award was for their body of work on nucleic acids and not exclusively for the discovery of the structure of DNA.[216] By the time of the award Wilkins had been working on the structure of DNA for more than 10 years, and had done much to confirm the Watson–Crick model.[217] Crick had been working on the genetic code at Cambridge and Watson had worked on RNA for some years.[218] Watson has suggested that ideally Wilkins and Franklin would have been awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry.[7]
Aaron Klug, Franklin's colleague and principal beneficiary in her will, was the sole winner of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1982, "for his development of crystallographic electron microscopy and his structural elucidation of biologically important nucleic acid-protein complexes."[219] This work was exactly what Franklin had started and which she introduced to Klug, and it is highly plausible that, were she alive, she would have shared the Nobel Prize.[220]
Awards and honours[edit]
Posthumous recognition[edit]
Mural inscription on King's College London's Franklin-Wilkins Building, co-named in honour of Rosalind Franklin's work
- 1992, English Heritage placed a blue plaque commemorating Franklin on the building in Drayton Gardens, London, where she lived until her death.[222][223]
- 1993, King's College London renamed the Orchard Residence at their Hampstead Campus as Rosalind Franklin Hall.[224]
- 1993, King's College London placed a blue plaque on its outside wall bearing the inscription: "R. E. Franklin, R. G. Gosling, A. R. Stokes, M. H. F. Wilkins, H. R. Wilson – King's College London – DNA – X-ray diffraction studies – 1953."[225]
- 1995, Newnham College, Cambridge opened a graduate residence named Rosalind Franklin Building[226] and put a bust of her in its garden.[227][228]
- 1997, Birkbeck, University of London School of Crystallography opened the Rosalind Franklin Laboratory.[229]
- 1997, the asteroid discovered in 1997 was named 9241 Rosfranklin.
- 1998, National Portrait Gallery in London added Rosalind Franklin's portrait next to those of Francis Crick, James Watson and Maurice Wilkins.[230]
- 1999, the Institute of Physics at Portland Place, London, renamed its theatre as Franklin Lecture Theatre.[231]
- 2000, King's College London opened the Franklin–Wilkins Building in honour of Franklin's and Wilkins's work at the college.[232]
- 2001, the American National Cancer Institute established the Rosalind E. Franklin Award for women in cancer research.[233]
- 2002, the University of Groningen, supported by the European Union, launched the Rosalind Franklin Fellowship to encourage women researchers to become full university professors.[234][235]
- 2003, the Royal Society established the Rosalind Franklin Award (officially the Royal Society Rosalind Franklin Award and Lecture) for an outstanding contribution to any area of natural science, engineering or technology.[236] The award consists of a silver-coated medal and a grant of £30,000.[237]
- 2003, the Royal Society of Chemistry declared King's College London as "National Historic Chemical Landmark" and placed a plaque on the wall near the entrance of the building, with the inscription: "Near this site Rosalind Franklin, Maurice Wilkins, Raymond Gosling, Alexander Stokes and Herbert Wilson performed experiments that led to the discovery of the structure of DNA. This work revolutionised our understanding of the chemistry behind life itself."[238]
Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science at Illinois
- 2004, Finch University of Health Sciences/The Chicago Medical School, located in North Chicago, Illinois, USA changed its name to the Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science.[239] It also adopted a new motto "Life in Discovery", and Photo 51 as its logo.[240]
- 2004, the Gruber Foundation started the Rosalind Franklin Young Investigator Award for two female geneticists from all over the world. It carries an annual fund of $25,000, each award is for three years, and selection is made by a joint committee appointed by the Genetics Society of America and the American Society of Human Genetics.[241]
- 2004, the Advanced Photon Source (APS) and the APS Users Organization (APSUO) started the APSUO Rosalind Franklin Young Investigator Award for young scientists who made contributions through the APS.[242]
- 2005, the DNA sculpture (donated by James Watson) outside Clare College, Cambridge's Memorial Court incorporates the words "The double helix model was supported by the work of Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins."[243]
- 2006, the Rosalind Franklin Society was established in New York by Mary Ann Liebert.[244][245] The Society aims to recognise, foster, and advance the important contributions of women in the life sciences and affiliated disciplines.[246]
- 2008, Columbia University awarded an honorary Louisa Gross Horwitz Prize to Franklin, "for her seminal contributions to the discovery of the structure of DNA".[247]
- St Paul's Girls School established the Rosalind Franklin Technology Centre.[25]
- 2012, the bioinformatics education software platform Rosalind is named in honour of Franklin.[248]
- 2012, The Rosalind Franklin Building is opened at Nottingham Trent University.[249]
- 2013, Google honoured Rosalind Franklin with a doodle, showing her gazing at a double helix structure of DNA with an X-ray of Photo 51 beyond it.[250][251]
- 2013, a plaque was placed on the wall of The Eagle pub in Cambridge commemorating Franklin's contribution to the discovery of the structure of DNA, on the sixtieth anniversary of Crick and Watson's announcement in the pub.[252][253]
- 2014, the Rosalind Franklin Award for Leadership in Industrial Biotechnology was established by Biotechnology Industry Organization in collaboration with the Rosalind Franklin Society, for an outstanding woman in the field of industrial biotechnology and bioprocessing.[254]
- 2014, the Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science unveiled a bronze statue of Franklin, created by Julie Rotblatt-Amrany, near its front entrance.[255]
- 2014, the Rosalind Franklin STEM Elementary was opened in Pasco, Washington, the first science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) elementary school in the district.[256][257]
- 2014, the University of Wolverhampton opened its new laboratory building named the Rosalind Franklin Science Building.[258][259]
- 2015, Newnham College Boat Club, Cambridge, launched a new racing VIII, naming it the Rosalind Franklin[260]
- 2015, the Rosalind Franklin Appathon was launched by University College London as a national app competition for women in STEMM (science, technology, engineering, maths and medicine).[261]
- 2015, a high performance computing and cloud facility in London was named Rosalind.[262]
- 2016, the British Humanist Association added the Rosalind Franklin Lecture to its annual lecture series, aimed to explore and celebrate the contribution of women towards the promotion and advancement of humanism.[263]
- 2016, the Rosalind Franklin Prize and Tech Day was held on 23 February in London, organised by University College London, i-sense, UCL Enterprise, the London Centre for Nanotechnology and the UCL Athena Swan Charter.[264]
- 2017, DSM opened the Rosalind Franklin Biotechnology Center in Delft, the Netherlands.[265]
- 2017, the Historic England listed the tomb of Franklin under the Planning (Listed Buildings and Conservation Areas) Act 1990 as a "special architectural or historic interest". Official description states that "the tomb commemorates the life and achievements of Rosalind Franklin, a scientist of exceptional distinction, whose pioneering work helped lay the foundations of molecular biology; Franklin’s X-ray observation of DNA contributed to the discovery of its helical structure."[266]
- 2019, the European Space Agency (ESA) announced that their ExoMars Rover will be named Rosalind Franklin after her.[267]
Cultural references[edit]
Franklin's part in the discovery of the nature of DNA was shown in the 1987 TV Movie Life Storystarring Tim Pigott-Smith as Crick, Alan Howard as Wilkins, Jeff Goldblum as Watson, and Juliet Stevenson as Franklin. This movie portrayed Franklin as somewhat stern, but also alleged that Watson and Crick did use a lot of her work to do theirs.[268][269]
A 56-minute documentary of the life and scientific contributions of Franklin, DNA – Secret of Photo 51was broadcast in 2003 on PBS Nova.[270] Narrated by Barbara Flynn, the program features interviews with Wilkins, Gosling, Klug, Maddox,[271] including Franklin's friends Vittorio Luzzati, Caspar, Anne Piper, and Sue Richley.[272] The UK version produced by BBC is titled Rosalind Franklin: DNA's Dark Lady.[273]
The first episode of another PBS documentary serial, DNAwas aired on 4 January 2004.[274] The episode titled The Secret of Life centres much around the contributions of Franklin. Narrated by Jeff Goldblum, it features Watson, Wilkins, Gosling and Peter Pauling (son of Linus Pauling).[275]
A play titled Rosalind: A Question of Life was written by Deborah Gearing to mark the work of Franklin, and was first performed on 1 November 2005 at the Birmingham Repertory Theatre,[276] and published by Oberon Books in 2006.[277]
Another play, Photograph 51 by Anna Ziegler, published in 2011,[278] has been produced at several places in the US,[279] and in late 2015 was put on at the Noel Coward Theatre, London, with Nicole Kidman playing Franklin.[280] Ziegler's version of the 1951–53 'race' for the structure of DNA sometimes emphasizes the pivotal role of Franklin's research and her personality. Although sometimes altering history for dramatic effect, the play nevertheless illuminates many of the key issues of how science was and is conducted.[281]
False Assumptions by Lawrence Aronovitch is a play about the life of Marie Curie in which Franklin is portrayed as frustrated and angry at the lack of recognition for her scientific contributions.[282]
Publications[edit]
Rosalind Franklin's most notable publications are listed below. The last two were published posthumously.
- D. H. Bangham & Rosalind E.Franklin (1946), "Thermal expansion of coals and carbonised coals" (PDF)Transactions of the Faraday Society48: 289–295, doi:10.1039/TF946420B289retrieved 14 January 2011 from The Rosalind Franklin Papersin "Profiles in Science", at National Library of Medicine
- R. E. Franklin (1949), "A study of the fine structure of carbonaceous solids by measurements of true and apparent densities: Part 1. Coals" (PDF)Transactions of the Faraday Society45 (3): 274–286, doi:10.1039/TF9494500274retrieved 14 January 2011 Per National Library of Medicine above. Citation count 88
- R. E. Franklin (1949), "A study of the fine structure of carbonaceous solids by measurements of true and apparent densities: Part 2. Carbonized coals" (PDF)Transactions of the Faraday Society45 (7): 668–682, doi:10.1039/TF9494500668retrieved 14 January 2011 Per National Library of Medicine above. Citation count 49
- R. E. Franklin (1949), "Note sur la structure colloïdale des houilles carboniseés", Bulletin de la société chimique de France16 (1–2): D53–D54 Citation count 0
- R. E. Franklin (1950), "On the structure of carbon" (PDF)Journal de Chimie Physique et de Physico-Chimie Biologique47 (5–6): 573–575, Bibcode:1950JCP....47..573F, doi:10.1051/jcp/1950470573retrieved 14 January 2011 Per National Library of Medicine above. Citation count 16. Note: this journal ceased publication in 1999
- R. E. Franklin (1950), "A rapid approximate method for correcting the low-angle scattering measurements for the influence of the finite height of the X-ray beam", Acta Crystallographica3 (2): 158–159, doi:10.1107/S0365110X50000343 Citation count 15
- R. E. Franklin (1950), "The interpretation of diffuse X-ray diagrams of carbon", Acta Crystallographica3 (2): 107–121, doi:10.1107/S0365110X50000264 Citation count 245. (In this article, Franklin cites Moffitt)
- R. E. Franklin (1950), "Influence of the bonding electrons on the scattering of X-rays by carbon", Nature165 (4185): 71–72, Bibcode:1950Natur.165...71F, doi:10.1038/165071a0, PMID 15403103 citation count 11
- R. E. Franklin (1951), "Les carbones graphitisables et non-graphitisables", Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des séances de l'Académie des sciencesPresented by G. Rimbaud, session of 3rd January, 1951, 232 (3): 232–234 Citation count 7
- R. E. Franklin (1951), "The structure of graphitic carbons" (PDF)Acta Crystallographica4 (3): 253–261, doi:10.1107/S0365110X51000842 Citation count 398
- G. E. Bacon & R.E. Franklin (1951), "The alpha dimension of graphite", Acta Crystallographica4 (6): 561–562, doi:10.1107/s0365110x51001793 Citation count 8
- R. E. Franklin (1951), "Crystallite growth in graphitizing and non-graphitizing carbons", Proceedings of the Royal Society A209 (1097): 196–218, Bibcode:1951RSPSA.209..196F, doi:10.1098/rspa.1951.0197 Citation count 513. Downloadable free from doi site, or alternatively from The Rosalind Franklin Papers collection at National Library of Medicine
- R. E. Franklin (1953), "Graphitizing and non-graphitizing carbons, their formation, structure and properties", Angewandte Chemie65 (13): 353–353, doi:10.1002/ange.19530651311 Citation count 0
- R. E. Franklin (1953), "The role of water in the structure of graphitic acid", Journal de Chimie Physique et de Physico-Chimie Biologique50: C26
- R. E. Franklin (1953), "Graphitizing and nongraphihastizing carbon compounds. Formation, structure and characteristics", Brenstoff-Chemie34: 359–361
- R. E. Franklin & R. G. Gosling (25 April 1953), "Molecular Configuration in Sodium Thymonucleate" (PDF)Nature171 (4356): 740–741, Bibcode:1953Natur.171..740F, doi:10.1038/171740a0, PMID 13054694retrieved 15 January 2011 Reprint also available at Resonance Classics
- Franklin, R. E.; Gosling, R. G. (1953). "The structure of sodium thymonucleate fibres. I. The influence of water content". Acta Crystallographica. 6 (8): 673–677. doi:10.1107/S0365110X53001939.
- Franklin, R. E.; Gosling, R. G. (1953). "The structure of sodium thymonucleate fibres. II. The cylindrically symmetrical Patterson function". Acta Crystallographica. 6 (8): 678–685. doi:10.1107/S0365110X53001940.
- R.E. Franklin & M. Mering (1954), "La structure de l'acide graphitique", Acta Crystallographica7 (10): 661–661, doi:10.1107/s0365110x54002137
- Rosalind Franklin & K. C. Holmes. (1956), "The Helical Arrangement of the Protein Sub-Units in Tobacco Mosaic Virus" (PDF)Biochimica et Biophysica Acta21: 405–406, doi:10.1016/0006-3002(56)90043-9, PMID 13363941retrieved 14 January 2011 Article access per National Library of Medicine above
- Rosalind E. Franklina & A. Klug (1956), "The nature of the helical groove on the tobacco mosaic virus particle X-ray diffraction studies", Biochimica et Biophysica Acta19 (3): 403–416, doi:10.1016/0006-3002(56)90463-2, PMID 13315300
- Klug, Aaron, J. T. Finch, and Rosalind Franklin (1957), "The Structure of Turnip Yellow Mosaic Virus: X-Ray Diffraction Studies" (PDF)Biochimica et Biophysica Acta25 (2): 242–252, doi:10.10 16/0006-3002(57)90465-1, PMID 13471561retrieved 14 January 2011 Per National Library of Medicine aboveCS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
- Franklin, Rosalind, Aaron Klug, J. T. Finch, and K. C. Holmes (1958), "On the Structure of Some Ribonucleoprotein Particles" (PDF)Discussions of the Faraday Society25: 197–198, doi:10.1039/DF9582500197retrieved 14 January 2011 Per National Library of MedicineCS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
- Klug, Aaron & Rosalind Franklin (1958), "Order-Disorder Transitions in Structures Containing Helical Molecules" (PDF)Discussions of the Faraday Society25: 104–110, doi:10.1039/DF9582500104retrieved 14 J anuary 2011 Per National Library of Medicine
- Klug, Aaron, Rosalind Franklin, and S. P. F. Humphreys-Owen (1959), "The Crystal Structure of Tipula Iridescent Virus as Determined by Bragg Reflection of Visible Light" (PDF)Biochimica et Biophysica Acta32 (1): 203–219, doi:10.1016/0006-3002(59)90570-0, PMID 13628733retrieved 14 January 2011 Per National Library of MedicineCS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
- Franklin, Rosalind, Donald L. D. Caspar, and Aaron Klug (1959), "Chapter XL: The Structure of Viruses as Determined by X-Ray Diffraction", Plant Pathology: Problems and Progress, 1908–1958 (PDF)University of Wisconsin Press, pp. 447–461retrieved 14 January 2011 Per Na tional Library of MedicineCS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
See also[edit]
References[edit]
- ^ "The Rosalind Franklin Papers, Biographical Information". profiles.nlm.nih.gov. Retrieved 13 November 2011.
- ^ a b c d e "The Rosalind Franklin Papers, The Holes in Coal: Research at BCURA and in Paris, 1942–1951". profiles.nlm.nih.gov. Retrieved 13 November 2011.
- ^ Glynn, p. 60.
- ^ a b Franklin, Rosalind (1946). The physical chemistry of solid organic colloids, with special reference to the structure of coal and related materials. lib.cam.ac.uk (PhD thesis). Universität von Cambridge. OCLC 879396430. EThOS uk.bl.ethos.599181.
- ^ a b Maddox, Brenda, "The double helix and the ‘wronged heroine’", NatureVol. 421, 23 January 2003.
- ^ Greenwood, Veronique. "First Posthumous Nobel Awarded". Discover Magazine. Discover Magazine. Retrieved 20 October 2018.
- ^ a b "The Discovery of the Molecular Structure of DNA – The Double Helix". Official Website of the Nobel Prizes. Retrieved 4 February 2014.
- ^ "Nobel Prize Facts". Official Website of the Nobel Prizes. Retrieved 24 January 2016.
- ^ a b c "James Watson, Francis Crick, Maurice Wilkins, and Rosalind Franklin". Science History Institute. Retrieved 20 March 2018.
- ^ "Name of Firm: A. Keyser & Co" (PDF). The Gazette. 22 February 1922. Retrieved 21 November 2014.
- ^ "Rosalind Franklin". London Remembers. Retrieved 21 November 2014.
- ^ GRO Register of Births: SEP 1920 1a 250 KENSINGTON – Rosalind E. Franklin, mmn = Waley
- ^ a b Glynn, p. 1.
- ^ Maddox, p. 7.
- ^ Segev p.
- ^ Sayre, A. (1975). Rosalind Franklin and DNA. New York: Norton. p. 31. ISBN 0-393-07493-5.
- ^ Maddox, p. 40.
- ^ Maddox, p. 20.
- ^ Sayre, p. 35.
- ^ Polcovar, p. 20.
- ^ Simkin, John (1997). "Rosalind Franklin". Spartacus Educational. Retrieved 13 February 2015.
- ^ "Hans (John) Mathias Eisenstadter Ellis". Geni. Retrieved 13 February 2015.
- ^ a b "Evi Ellis". Ancestry.com. Retrieved 13 February 2015.
- ^ Maddox, p. 15.
- ^ a b c d Berger, Doreen (3 December 2014). "A Biography of The Dark Lady Of Notting Hill". United Synagogue Women. Retrieved 7 February 2015.
- ^ Glynn, p. 25.
- ^ Sayre, p. 41.
- ^ Maddox, p. 30.
- ^ Maddox, p. 26.
- ^ Glynn, p. 28.
- ^ Glynn, p. 30.
- ^ Dixon, R. N.; D. M. Agar; R. E. Burge (1997). "William Charles Price. 1 April 1909−−10 March 1993". Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society. 43: 438. doi:10.1098/rsbm.1997.0023. JSTOR 770344.
- ^ Fact sheet: Women at Cambridge: A Chronology[1]. Archived 14 January 2012 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Polcovar, p. 31.
- ^ Rosalind FranklinCold Spring Harbor Laboratory's Dolan DNA Learning Center, ID 1649, [2].
- ^ Dainton, Sir Frederick Sydney (1981). "Ronald George Wreyford Norrish, 9 November 1897 – 7 June 1978". Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society. 27: 379–424. doi:10.1098/rsbm.1981.0016. JSTOR 769878.
- ^ Maddox, p. 72.
- ^ Polcovar, p. 37.
- ^ Harris, P.J.F. (March 2001). "Rosalind Franklin's work on coal, carbon, and graphite" (PDF). Interdisciplinary Science Reviews. 26 (3): 204–210. doi:10.1179/030801801679467.
- ^ "The Rosalind Franklin Papers: The Holes in Coal: Research at BCURA and in Paris, 1942–1951". Profiles.nlm.nih.gov. Retrieved 2013-07-25.
- ^ "Rosalind Franklin". Timetoast. Retrieved 28 August 2014.
- ^ "Rosalind Franklin (1920–1958)". DNA Learning Center, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory. Retrieved 28 August 2014.
- ^ D. W. van Krevelen, Coal, Third Edition: Typology – Physics – Chemistry – ConstitutionElsevier, New York, 1993.
- ^ Chemistry and Physics of Carbonvol 1–, 1968–, Elsevier, New York.
- ^ G. Terriere, A. Oberlin, J. Mering, Oxidation of graphite in liquid medium – observations by means of microscopy and electron diffractionCarbon, 5, 431--, 1967.
- ^ Maddox, p. 124.
- ^ Maddox, p. 114.
- ^ Wilkins, Wilkins, M., The Third Man of the Double Helix, an autobiography (2003) Oxford University Press, Oxford. pp. 143–144.
- ^ Wilkins, p. 121.
- ^ Maddox, pp. 149–150, Elkin, p 45. Elkin, L.O. Rosalind Franklin and the Double Helix. Physics Today, March 2003(available free on-line, see references). Olby, R. The Path to the Double Helix (London: Macmillan, 1974).
- ^ Sayre, Olby, Maddox, Elkin, Wilkins.
- ^ Maddox, p. 129.
- ^ Elkin, p. 43.
- ^ Wilkins, p. 155.
- ^ Sayre, Anne (2000). Rosalind Franklin and DNA. W. W. Norton. ISBN 0-393-32044-8.
- ^ a b Elkin p. 45.
- ^ a b Maddox, p. 153.
- ^ Wilkins, p. 154.
- ^ Wood, Bayden R. (2016). "The importance of hydration and DNA conformation in interpreting infrared spectra of cells and tissues". Chemical Society Reviews. 45: 1980–98. doi:10.1039/C5CS00511F. PMID 26403652.
- ^ a b Maddox, p. 155.
- ^ a b Wilkins, p. 158.
- ^ a b Wilkins, p. 176.
- ^ Wilkins, p. 182.
- ^ Maddox, p. 168.
- ^ Maddox, p. 169.
- ^ Wilkins, pp. 232–233.
- ^ a b Maddox, p. 199.
- ^ Franklin and Gosling (1953). Acta Crystallographica6, 673–677.
- ^ "Wellcome Library Encore – [The Papers of Rosalind Franklin] [archive material]". search.wellcomelibrary.org. Retrieved 11 October 2016.
- ^ Klug, A. "Rosalind Franklin and the Double Helix", Nature 248 (26 April 1974): 787–788.
- ^ Klug, A. Rosalind Franklin and the Discovery of the Structure of DNA, Nature 219 (24 August 1968): 808–810 & 843.
- ^ Hubbard, Ruth (2013). "Science, Power, Gender: How DNA Became the Book of Life". Women, Science, and Technology (3rd ed.). Hoboken: Taylor and Francis. p. 269. ISBN 1-135-05542-4.
- ^ Yockey, pp. 9–10.
- ^ Crick's 31 December 1961 letter to Jacque Monod cited above.
- ^ Maddox, p. 147.
- ^ Maddox, p. 161.
- ^ Hubbard, Ruth (1990). The Politics of Women's Biology. Rutgers State University. p. 60. ISBN 0-8135-1490-8.
- ^ "The Double Helix", p. 115.
- ^ "The Double Helix", p. 60.
- ^ "All hands to the pump" letter is preserved in the Crick archives at the University of California, San Diego, and was posted as part of their Web collection. It is also quoted by both Maddox, p 204, and Olby.
- ^ a b Maddox, p. 207.
- ^ In contrast to his other letters to Crick, Wilkins dated this one.
- ^ "Old rogues" letter is preserved in the Crick archives at the University of California at San Diego, and was posted as part of their web collection. It is also quoted by both Maddox, p. 208, and Olby.
- ^ a b Watson, J. D., F. H. Crick (April 1953). "Molecular structure of nucleic acids; a structure for deoxyribose nucleic acid" (PDF). Nature . 171 (4356): 737–738. Bibcode:1953Natur.171..737W. doi:10.1038/171737a0. PMID 13054692.CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link) Watson and Crick's article was immediately followed by the two King's College London submissions: Wilkins, M. H., A. R. Stokes, H. R. Wilson (April 1953). "Molecular structure of deoxypentose nucleic acids" (PDF). Nature . 171 (4356): 738–740. Bibcode:1953Natur.171..738W. doi:10.1038/171738a0. PMID 13054693.CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link) then by: Franklin, R. E., R. G. Gosling (April 1953). "Molecular configuration in sodium thymonucleate" (PDF). Nature . 171 (4356): 740–741. Bibcode:1953Natur.171..740F. doi:10.1038/171740a0. PMID 13054694.CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
- ^ Franklin and Gosling (1953).
- ^ Maddox, p. 210.
- ^ 10 April 1953 Franklin postcard to Crick asking permission to view model. The original is in the Crick archives at the University of California, San Diego.
- ^ Holt, J. (2002).
- ^ Rich, Alexander (2003). "The double helix: a tale of two puckers". Nature Structural Biology. 10 (4): 247–249. doi:10.1038/nsb0403-247. PMID 12660721.
- ^ Scher, Stanley (2004). "Was Watson and Crick's model truly self-evident?". Nature . 427 (6975): 584–584. Bibcode:2004Natur.427..584S. doi:10.1038/427584c. PMID 14961092.
- ^ Arnott, Struther (2006). "Historical article: DNA polymorphism and the early history of the double helix". Trends in Biochemical Sciences. 31 (6): 349–354. doi:10.1016/j.tibs.2006.04.004. PMID 16678428.
- ^ Maddox, p. 205.
- ^ Maddox, p. 229.
- ^ Brown, Andrew, J. D. Bernal, the sage of science (2005), Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp. 353–355.
- ^ Franklin, RE; Gosling, RG (1953). "Evidence for 2-chain helix in crystalline structure of sodium deoxyribonucleate". Nature . 172 (4369): 156–157. Bibcode:1953Natur.172..156F. doi:10.1038/172156a0. PMID 13072614.
- ^ Maddox, p. 235.
- ^ Brown, pp. 356–357.
- ^ Brown, pp. 356–357.
- ^ Franklin, RE. (1955). "Structure of Tobacco Mosaic Virus". Nature . 175 (4452): 379–381. Bibcode:1955Natur.175..379F. doi:10.1038/175379a0. PMID 14356181.
- ^ Maddox, p. 252.
- ^ Franklin and Holmes, 1956.
- ^ Maddox, p. 254.
- ^ Franklin, Rosalind E.; Klug, A. (1956). "The nature of the helical groove on the tobacco mosaic virus particle X-ray diffraction studies". Biochimica et Biophysica Acta. 19 (3): 403–416. doi:10.1016/0006-3002(56)90463-2. PMID 13315300.
- ^ Franklin et al.1958.
- ^ Maddox, p. 256.
- ^ Maddox, p. 262.
- ^ Franklin, RE (1956). "Structure of Tobacco Mosaic Virus: Location of the Ribonucleic Acid in the Tobacco Mosaic Virus Particle". Nature . 177 (4516): 928–930. Bibcode:1956Natur.177..928F. doi:10.1038/177928b0.
- ^ Casper, D. L. D. (1956). "Structure of Tobacco Mosaic Virus: Radial Density Distribution in the Tobacco Mosaic Virus Particle". Nature . 177 (4516): 928–928. Bibcode:1956Natur.177..928C. doi:10.1038/177928a0.
- ^ Maddox, p. 269.
- ^ Maddox, p. 296.
- ^ Glynn, p. 145.
- ^ Brown, pp. 358–359.
- ^ Brown, p. 359.
- ^ "Expo 58". Retrieved 21 January 2015.
- ^ Devos, Rika (2011). "Expo 58: the catalyst for Belgium's Welfare State Government complex?" (PDF). Planning Perspectives. 26 (4): 649–659. doi:10.1080/02665433.2011.599934.
- ^ "Behind the picture: Rosalind Franklin and the polio model". Medical Research Council. Retrieved 21 January 2015.
- ^ Maddox, Brenda. "Mother of DNA". New Humanist. Retrieved 21 January 2015.
- ^ Brown, pp. 360–361.
- ^ Glynn, p. 153.
- ^ Brown, p. 466.
- ^ "Rosalind Franklin". NNDB. Soylent Communications. Retrieved 8 February 2015.
- ^ Glynn, p. 12.
- ^ Glynn, p. 62.
- ^ a b Maddox, p. 61.
- ^ Glynn, p. 19.
- ^ Glynn, p. 44.
- ^ Glynn, p. 16.
- ^ a b Polcovar, p. 33.
- ^ Polcovar, p. 59.
- ^ Glynn, p. 33.
- ^ Glynn, p. 79.
- ^ a b Polcovar, p. 41.
- ^ Maddox, p. 277.
- ^ Watson, p. 16.
- ^ Glynn, p. 157.
- ^ a b Maddox, p. 288.
- ^ a b Glynn, p. 52.
- ^ Maddox, p. 261.
- ^ Polcovar, p. 51.
- ^ Maddox, p. 287.
- ^ Maddox, p. 283.
- ^ Maddox, p. 284.
- ^ Maddox, p. 285.
- ^ Maddox, p. 292.
- ^ Maddox, p. 301.
- ^ Maddox, p. 302.
- ^ GRO Register of Deaths: JUN 1958 5c 257 CHELSEA – Rosalind E. Franklin, age 37.
- ^ Maddox, pp. 305–307.
- ^ "Defending Franklin's Legacy". Secret of Photo 51. NOVA. Retrieved 10 November 2010.Along with genetic predisposition; opinion of CSU's Lynne Osman Elkin; see also March 2003 Physics Today
- ^ Maddox, p.320.
- ^ Murray, Ruby J. (2011). "Historical Profile: Rosalind Franklin". Dumbo Feather. Retrieved 27 August 2014.
- ^ "Rosalind Franklin tomb". Himetop. Retrieved 27 August 2014.
- ^ Friedman, Meyer; Friedland, Gerald W. Medicine's 10 Greatest Discoveries. Universitäten Presse. p. 227. ISBN 978-81-7371-226-5.
- ^ Sayre, p. 96.
- ^ a b Stasiak, Andrzej (March 2001). "Rosalind Franklin". EMBO Reports. 2 (3): 181. doi:10.1093/embo-reports/kve037. PMC 1083834.
- ^ Hussain, Farooq (20 November 1975). Did Rosalind Franklin deserve DNA Nobel prize?. New Scientist. 68. Reed Business Information. p. 470. Retrieved 10 January 2011.
- ^ a b Maddox, p. 135.
- ^ Sayre, p. 97.
- ^ Bryson, B. (2004), p. 490.
- ^ Crick, p. 68.
- ^ Sayre, pp. 42–45.
- ^ McGrayne, p. 6.
- ^ "Rosalind Franklin". The Manhattan Project Heritage Preservation Association, Inc. Retrieved 13 February 2015.
- ^ Lewis, Jone Johnson. "Rosalind Franklin". About Education. Retrieved 13 February 2015.
- ^ "Rosalind Franklin". What is Biotechnology. Retrieved 13 February 2015.
- ^ "Rosalind Franklin". PBS Online. Retrieved 13 February 2015.
- ^ a b Glynn, Jenifer (2012). "Remembering my sister Rosalind Franklin". The Lancet. 379 (9821): 1094–1095. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(12)60452-8. PMID 22451966.
- ^ Harding, Sandra (2006). "Sexist criticism of Watson's memoir". Science and Social Inequality: Feminist and Postcolonial Issues. Urbana: Universität von Illinois Press. p. 71. ISBN 978-0-252-07304-5. Retrieved 10 January 2011.
- ^ "Quotes by or related to Rosalind Franklin". Oregon State University Libraries. Retrieved 14 February 2015.
- ^ McGrayne, p. 318.
- ^ Glynn, J. (2008). "Rosalind Franklin: 50 years on". Notes and Records of the Royal Society. 62 (2): 253–255. doi:10.1098/rsnr.2007.0052.
- ^ Glynn, p. 158.
- ^ Crick, p. 69.
- ^ Wertheimer, Michael; Clamar, Aphrodite; Siderits, Mary Anne (2007). "The Case of the Purloined Picture: Rosalind Franklin and the Keystone of the Double Helix". In Gavin, Eileen A.; Clamar, Aphrodite; Siderits, Mary Anne. Women of Vision: Their Psychology, Circumstances, and Successes. New York: Springer Science+Business Media. ISBN 978-0-8261-0253-9. Retrieved 10 January 2011 Rosalind's letter quoted
- ^ Maddox, p. 48.
- ^ Everson, Ted (2007). The Gene: A Historical Perspective. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press. p. 85. ISBN 978-0-313-33449-8.
- ^ Maddox, pp. 177–178.
- ^ Maddox, p. 196.
- ^ Crick (1988), p. 67.
- ^ Elkin, L.O. (2003), p. 44.
- ^ Maddox, pp. 198–199.
- ^ Sayre, p. 151.
- ^ Minkoff, Eli; Baker, Pamela (2000). Biology Today: An Issues Approach (2 ed.). New York: Garland Publishing. p. 58. ISBN 978-0-8153-2760-8.
- ^ Creager, Angela (2003). "Crystallizing a Life in Science". American Scientist. Sigma Xi, The Scientific Research Society. Archived from the original on 12 November 2014. Retrieved 25 January 2015.
- ^ Stasiak, Andrzej (2003). "The First Lady of DNA". EMBO Reports. 4 (1): 14. doi:10.1038/sj.embor.embor723. PMC 1315822.
- ^ Maddox, p. 196.
- ^ Wilkins, p. 198.
- ^ Maddox, p. 312.
- ^ Wilkins, p. 257.
- ^ Maddox, p. 188.
- ^ Perutz's papers are in the Archive of the J. Craig Venter institute and Science Foundation in Rockville Maryland, which were purchased as part of the Jeremy Norman Archive of Molecular Biology; quoted in Ferry, Georgina, 2007. Max Perutz and the Secret of Life. Published in the UK by Chatto & Windus (ISBN 0-7011-7695-4), and in the USA by the Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press.
- ^ Science27 June 1969, pp. 207–212, also reprinted in the Norton critical edition of The Double Helixedited by Gunther Stent.
- ^ Watson (1969).
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- ^ Wilkins, p. 213.
- ^ Wilkins, p. 214.
- ^ Wilkins, p. 226.
- ^ Maddox, pp. 316–317, and other parts of the epilogue.
- ^ Watson, J.D. (1968), pp. 95–96.
- ^ Sayre, A. (1975), pp. 156–167.
- ^ Franklin, Rosalind E.; Gosling, R. G. (April 25, 1953). "Molecular Configuration in Sodium Thymonucleate" (PDF). Nature . 171 (4356): 740–741. Bibcode:1953Natur.171..740F. doi:10.1038/171740a0. PMID 13054694.
- ^ "The Discovery of the Molecular Structure of DNA – The Double Helix". Nobelprize.org. 30 September 2003. Retrieved 25 July 2013.
- ^ Washington, Harriet A. (31 December 2012). "Don't Forget Rosalind Franklin". Ms.
- ^ Beard, Mary (2001). "Down among the Women (Nobel Laureates)". The Kenyon Review. Harvard University Press. 23 (2): 239–247. JSTOR 4338226.
- ^ Gann, Alexander; Witkowski, Jan A. (2013). "DNA: Archives reveal Nobel nominations". Nature . 496 (7446): 434. Bibcode:2013Natur.496..434G. doi:10.1038/496434a. PMID 23619686.
- ^ Meselson, Matthew; Stahl, Franklin W. (1958). "The replication of DNA in Escherichia coli". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 44 (7): 671–682. Bibcode:1958PNAS...44..671M. doi:10.1073/pnas.44.7.671. PMC 528642. PMID 16590258.
- ^ Nakada, D; Ryan, FJ (1961). "Replication of deoxyribonucleic acid in non-dividing bacteria". Nature . 189 (4762): 398–399. Bibcode:1961Natur.189..398N. doi:10.1038/189398a0. PMID 13727575.
- ^ Dounce, AL; Sarkar, NK; Kay, ER (1961). "The possible role of DNA-ase I in DNA replication". Journal of Cellular and Comparative Physiology. 57 (1): 47–54. doi:10.1002/jcp.1030570107. PMID 13724093.
- ^ Cavalleiri, LF; Rosenberg, BH (1961). "The replication of DNA III. Changes in the number of strands in E. coli DNA during its replication cycle". Biophysical Journal. 1: 337–351. Bibcode:1961BpJ.....1..337C. doi:10.1016/S0006-3495(61)86893-8. PMC 1366352. PMID 13691706.
- ^ Zallen, Doris T. (2003). "Despite Franklin's work, Wilkins earned his Nobel". Nature . 425 (6953): 15. Bibcode:2003Natur.425...15Z. doi:10.1038/425015b. PMID 12955113.
(Crick's 31 December 1961 letter to Jacques Monod) However, the data which really helped us to obtain the structure was mainly obtained by Rosalind Franklin
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- ^ "Iota Sigma Pi professional awards recipients". Iotasigmapi.info. 25 July 2000. Archived from the original on 29 August 2013. Retrieved 25 July 2013.
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- ^ "€ 6.6 million EU grant for Rosalind Franklin Fellowship". University of Groningen. 2 August 2013.
- ^ Lambert, F. (2003). "The Royal Society Rosalind Franklin Award". Notes and Records of the Royal Society. 57 (2): 265–266. doi:10.1098/rsnr.2003.0211.
- ^ "Royal Society Rosalind Franklin Award and Lecture". royalsociety.org. Royal Society.
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- ^ "APSUO Franklin Award". UChicago Argonne LLC. Retrieved 17 March 2018.
- ^ "Secret of life revisited". Cambridge News. 9 November 2005. Archived from the original on 6 February 2009. Retrieved 1 November 2010.
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- ^ Staff (18 December 2013). "Mary Ann Liebert to Receive Award for Stem Cell Education at World Stem Cell Summit in San Diego". Biotech Week. Retrieved 9 July 2016 – via HighBeam Research. (Subscription required (help)).
- ^ "Mission". Rosalind Franklin Society. Retrieved 21 November 2014.
- ^ "2008 Horwitz Prize Awarded To Arthur Horwich & Ulrich Hartl For Cellular Protein Folding". Medical News Today. 15 October 2008. Retrieved 10 April 2012.
- ^ "Researchers Launch Innovative, Hands-on Online Tool for Science Education". Jacobsschool.ucsd.edu. Retrieved 14 January 2016.
- ^ "Lord Robert Winston opens Rosalind Franklin Building at Nottingham Trent Uni". Nottingham Post. Local World. 16 October 2012. Archived from the original on 29 November 2014. Retrieved 21 November 2014.
- ^ "Rosalind Franklin, DNA scientist, celebrated by Google doodle", The Guardian2013, 25 July.
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- ^ Ashwell, Louise (10 March 2013). "New plaque unveiled to commemorate unsung heroine of DNA". Varsity. Varsity Publications Ltd. Retrieved 27 August 2014.
- ^ Kennedy, Caitlin (11 July 2014). "CA Scientist Receives First BIO Rosalind Franklin Award". Biotechnology Industry Organization.
- ^ "Rosalind Franklin University unveils bronze statue of its namesake". Daily Herald. 29 May 2014. Retrieved 13 February 2015.
- ^ "Franklin STEM Elementary". Schoolwires, Inc. Retrieved 25 October 2015.
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- ^ "The Rosalind Franklin Science Building". University of Wolverhampton. Retrieved 25 October 2015.
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- ^ "Boats – Newnham College Boat Club". Retrieved 5 November 2015.
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- ^ "» Professor Dame Anne Glover to deliver inaugural Rosalind Franklin Lecture on 10 March". British Humanist Association. Retrieved 7 March 2016.
- ^ "And the winners are ... The Rosalind Franklin Appathon Prize and Tech Day 2016". London Centre for Nanotechnology. 8 March 2016. Retrieved 9 May 2016.
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- ^ "Tomb of Rosalind Franklin". Historic England. 2017. Retrieved 11 February 2018.
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- ^ Ziegler, Anna (2011). Photograph 51. New York: Dramatists Play Service. ISBN 978-0-8222-2508-9.
- ^ Ziegler, Anna (2011). Photograph 51. New York: Dramatists Play Service. ISBN 978-0-8222-2508-9.
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- ^ "Review of ''False Assumptions''". Productionottawa.com. 27 March 2013. Retrieved 25 July 2013.
Bibliography[edit]
- Brown, Andrew (2005). J. D. Bernal: The Sage of Science. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-920565-3.
- Bryson, Bill (2004). A Short History of Nearly Everything. London: Black Swan. ISBN 0-552-99704-8.
- Crick, F.; Watson, J. (1953), "Molecular structure of nucleic acids" (PDF)Nature171 (4356): 737–738, Bibcode:1953Natur.171..737W, doi:10.1038/171737a0, PMID 13054692.
- Crick, Francis (1988). What Mad Pursuit: A Personal View of Scientific Discovery. New York: Grundlegende Bücher. ISBN 0-465-09137-7.
- Elkin, L. O., Rosalind Franklin and the Double Helix Physics Today March 2003, pp. 42–48.
- Franklin, R. E. (January 1950), "Influence of the bonding electrons on the scattering of X-rays by carbon", Nature165 (4185): 71–72, Bibcode:1950Natur.165...71F, doi:10.1038/165071a0, PMID 15403103.
- Ferry, Georgina (2007). Max Perutz and the Secret of Life. London: Chatto & Windus. ISBN 0-7011-7695-4.
- Franklin, R. E. & Gosling, R. G. (25 April 1953), "Molecular Configuration in Sodium Thymonucleate" (PDF)Nature171 (4356): 740–741, Bibcode:1953Natur.171..740F, doi:10.1038/171740a0, PMID 13054694retrieved 15 January 2011 Reprint also available at Resonance Classics.
- Franklin, R. E. (1955), "Structure of tobacco mosaic virus", Nature175 (4452): 379–381, Bibcode:1955Natur.175..379F, doi:10.1038/175379a0, PMID 14356181
- Franklin, R. E. (1956), "Structure of Tobacco Mosaic Virus: Location of the Ribonucleic Acid in the Tobacco Mosaic Virus Particle", Nature177 (4516): 928–30, Bibcode:1956Natur.177..928F, doi:10.1038/177928b0.[1 9459374]
- Glynn, Jenifer (2012). My Sister Rosalind Franklin. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-969962-9.
- Holt, J. (2002) "Photo Finish: Rosalind Franklin and the great DNA race" The New Yorker October
- Judson, Horace Freeland (1996). The Eighth Day of Creation: Makers of the Revolution in Biology. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press. ISBN 978-0-87969-478-4.
- Maddox, Brenda (2003). Rosalind Franklin: The Dark Lady of DNA. London: Harper Collins. ISBN 0-00-655211-0.
- McGrayne, Sharon Bertsch (1998). Nobel Prize Women in Science:: Their Lives, Struggles, and Momentous Discoveries (Rev ed.). Washington, D.C.: Joseph Henry Press. ISBN 978-0-309-07270-0.
- Robert Cecil, Olby (1994) [1974]. The Path to the Double Helix: The Discovery of DNA (Unabridged, corrected and enlarged Dover ed.). New York: Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-68117-3.
- Polcovar, Jane (2006). Rosalind Franklin and the Structure of Life. Greensboro, N.C.: Morgan Reynolds Publishing Inc. ISBN 978-1-59935-022-6.
- Sayre, Anne (1987) [1975]. Rosalind Franklin and DNA (Reissued ed.). New York: W.W. Norton und Company. ISBN 0-393-32044-8.
- Segev, Tom (2000). One Palestine, Complete Jews and Arabs Under the British Mandate. Henry Holt und Company. ISBN 0-8050-4848-0.
- Watson, James D. (1980) [1968]The Double Helix: A Personal Account of the Discovery of the Structure of DNANorton, ISBN 0-393-01245-X
- Watson, J. Letter to Science164p. 1539, 27 (1969).
- Wilkins, Maurice (2005). The Third Man of the Double Helix : the autobiography of Maurice Wilkins. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-280667-X.
- Yockey, Hubert P. (2004). Information Theory, Evolution, and The Origin of Life. New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-80293-2.
Further reading[edit]
- Brown, Andrew (2007). J.D. Bernal: The Sage of Science. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-920565-5.
- Chomet, Seweryn, ed. (1995). D.N.A.: Genesis of a Aiscovery. England: Newman-Hemisphere. ISBN 978-1-56700-138-9.
- Crick, Francis (1988). What Mad Pursuit: A Personal View of Scientific Discovery. New York: Grundlegende Bücher. ISBN 0-465-09138-5.
- Dickerson, Richard E. (2005). Present at the Flood: How Structural Molecular Biology Came about. Sunderland: Sinauer. ISBN 0-87893-168-6.
- Finch, John (2008). A Nobel Fellow on Every Floor: A History of the Medical Research Council Laboratory of Molecular Biology. Cambridge: Medical Research Council Laboratory of Molecular Biology. ISBN 978-1-84046-940-0.
- Gibbons, Michelle G (2012). "Reassessing Discovery: Rosalind Franklin, Scientific Visualization, and the Structure of DNA". Philosophy of Science. 79: 63–80. doi:10.1086/663241.
- Hager, Thomas (1995). Force of Nature: The Life of Linus Pauling. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-684-80909-5.
- Horace, Freeland Judson (1996) [1977]. The Eighth Day of Creation: Makers of the Revolution in Biology (Expanded ed.). Plainview, N.Y: CSHL Press. ISBN 0-87969-478-5.
- Glynn, Jenifer (1996). "Rosalind Franklin, 1920–1958". In Shils, Edward. Cambridge Women: Twelve Portraits. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 267–282. ISBN 0-521-48287-9.
- Klug, Aaron (2004). "R.E. Franklin". In Matthew, H.C.G.; Harrison, Brian. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography: From the Earliest Times to the Year 2000. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-861411-X.
- Klug, Aaron (2004). "The discovery of the DNA Double Helix". In Krude, Torsten. DNA: Changing Science and Society. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 5–27. ISBN 0-521-82378-1.
- Olby, Robert (1974). "Rosalind Elsie Franklin". In Gillispie, Charles Coulston. Dictionary of Scientific Biography. V.10. New York: Scribner. ISBN 0-684-10121-1.
- Olby, Robert (1994). The Path to The Double Helix: The Discovery of DNA (Unabridged, corrected and enlarged Dover ed.). New York: Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-68117-3.
- Olby, R. (January 2003). "Quiet debut for the double helix". Nature . 421 (6921): 402–405. Bibcode:2003Natur.421..402O. doi:10.1038/nature01397. PMID 12540907.
- Tait, Sylvia A.S.; Tait, James F. (2004). A Quartet of Unlikely Discoveries. London: Athena Press. ISBN 978-1-84401-343-2.
- Wilkins, Maurice (2005). The Third Man of the Double Helix: The Autobiography of Maurice Wilkins. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-280667-3.
External links[edit]
- "The Rosalind Franklin Society".
- "Rosalind Franklin (1920–1958)". Contributions of 20th century women to physics. UCLA.
- "Rosalind Franklin". The History of Medicine Topographical Database.
- Recordings by Aaron Klug at Web of Stories:
- Franklin, Stephen (24 April 2003). "My aunt, the DNA pioneer". BBC.
- Elkin, Lynne Osman (March 2003). "Rosalind Franklin and the double helix". Physics Today. 56: 42–48. Bibcode:2003PhT....56c..42E. doi:10.1063/1.1570771. Archived from the original on 3 February 2016.
- Piper, Anne (April 1998). "Light on a dark lady". Trends in Biochemical Sciences. 23 (4): 151–154. doi:10.1016/S0968-0004(98)01194-3.
- "Franklin, Rosalind Elsie (1920–1958), crystallographer". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/37413.(Subscription or UK public library membership required.) by Sir Aaron Klug
- "Clue to chemistry of heredity found" (PDF). New York Times. 13 June 1953. The first American newspaper coverage of the discovery of the structure of DNA.
- Elkin, Lynne. "Rosalind Elsie Franklin 1920–1958". Jewish Women's Encyclopedia.
- "Secret of Photo 51". PBS. Website for television program first broadcast in 2003
- "The Rosalind Franklin Papers". Profiles in Science. U.S. National Library of Medicine.
- "The Papers of Rosalind Franklin". Janus. Documents from the Churchill Archives Centre, Cambridge. Also available at "The Rosalind Franklin papers". Wellcome Library.
- "Rosalind Franklin publications". Garfield Library. University of Pennsylvania.
- "Rosalind Franklin 1920–1958". Linus Pauling and the race for DNA, a documentary history.
- Thomas, T. Dennis (November 2008). "The role of activated charcoal in plant tissue culture" (PDF). Biotechnology Advances. 26 (6): 618–631. doi:10.1016/j.biotechadv.2008.08.003.
- Cobb, Matthew (23 June 2015). "Sexism in science: did Watson and Crick really steal Rosalind Franklin's data?". The Guardian.
[S]cience and everyday life cannot and should not be separated. Science, for me, gives a partial explanation of life ... I do not accept your definition of faith i.e. belief in life after death ... Your faith rests on the future of yourself and others as individuals, mine in the future and fate of our successors. It seems to me that yours is the more selfish ...[123] [as to] the question of a creator. A creator of what? ... I see no reason to believe that a creator of protoplasm or primeval matter, if such there be, has any reason to be interested in our insignificant race in a tiny corner of the universe.[124]
IN MEMORY OF
ROSALIND ELSIE FRANKLIN
מ' רחל בת ר' יהודה [Rochel/Rachel daughter of Yehuda, her Hebrew name]
DEARLY LOVED ELDER DAUGHTER OF
ELLIS AND MURIEL FRANKLIN
25TH JULY 1920 – 16TH APRIL 1958
SCIENTIST
HER RESEARCH AND DISCOVERIES ON
VIRUSES REMAIN OF LASTING BENEFIT
TO MANKIND
ת נ צ ב ה [Hebrew initials for "her soul shall be bound in the bundle of life"]
Thus our general ideas are not inconsistent with the model proposed by Watson and Crick in the preceding communication.[202]
- D. H. Bangham & Rosalind E.Franklin (1946), "Thermal expansion of coals and carbonised coals" (PDF)Transactions of the Faraday Society48: 289–295, doi:10.1039/TF946420B289retrieved 14 January 2011 from The Rosalind Franklin Papersin "Profiles in Science", at National Library of Medicine
- R. E. Franklin (1949), "A study of the fine structure of carbonaceous solids by measurements of true and apparent densities: Part 1. Coals" (PDF)Transactions of the Faraday Society45 (3): 274–286, doi:10.1039/TF9494500274retrieved 14 January 2011 Per National Library of Medicine above. Citation count 88
- R. E. Franklin (1949), "A study of the fine structure of carbonaceous solids by measurements of true and apparent densities: Part 2. Carbonized coals" (PDF)Transactions of the Faraday Society45 (7): 668–682, doi:10.1039/TF9494500668retrieved 14 January 2011 Per National Library of Medicine above. Citation count 49
- R. E. Franklin (1949), "Note sur la structure colloïdale des houilles carboniseés", Bulletin de la société chimique de France16 (1–2): D53–D54 Citation count 0
- R. E. Franklin (1950), "On the structure of carbon" (PDF)Journal de Chimie Physique et de Physico-Chimie Biologique47 (5–6): 573–575, Bibcode:1950JCP....47..573F, doi:10.1051/jcp/1950470573retrieved 14 January 2011 Per National Library of Medicine above. Citation count 16. Note: this journal ceased publication in 1999
- R. E. Franklin (1950), "A rapid approximate method for correcting the low-angle scattering measurements for the influence of the finite height of the X-ray beam", Acta Crystallographica3 (2): 158–159, doi:10.1107/S0365110X50000343 Citation count 15
- R. E. Franklin (1950), "The interpretation of diffuse X-ray diagrams of carbon", Acta Crystallographica3 (2): 107–121, doi:10.1107/S0365110X50000264 Citation count 245. (In this article, Franklin cites Moffitt)
- R. E. Franklin (1950), "Influence of the bonding electrons on the scattering of X-rays by carbon", Nature165 (4185): 71–72, Bibcode:1950Natur.165...71F, doi:10.1038/165071a0, PMID 15403103 citation count 11
- R. E. Franklin (1951), "Les carbones graphitisables et non-graphitisables", Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des séances de l'Académie des sciencesPresented by G. Rimbaud, session of 3rd January, 1951, 232 (3): 232–234 Citation count 7
- R. E. Franklin (1951), "The structure of graphitic carbons" (PDF)Acta Crystallographica4 (3): 253–261, doi:10.1107/S0365110X51000842 Citation count 398
- G. E. Bacon & R.E. Franklin (1951), "The alpha dimension of graphite", Acta Crystallographica4 (6): 561–562, doi:10.1107/s0365110x51001793 Citation count 8
- R. E. Franklin (1951), "Crystallite growth in graphitizing and non-graphitizing carbons", Proceedings of the Royal Society A209 (1097): 196–218, Bibcode:1951RSPSA.209..196F, doi:10.1098/rspa.1951.0197 Citation count 513. Downloadable free from doi site, or alternatively from The Rosalind Franklin Papers collection at National Library of Medicine
- R. E. Franklin (1953), "Graphitizing and non-graphitizing carbons, their formation, structure and properties", Angewandte Chemie65 (13): 353–353, doi:10.1002/ange.19530651311 Citation count 0
- R. E. Franklin (1953), "The role of water in the structure of graphitic acid", Journal de Chimie Physique et de Physico-Chimie Biologique50: C26
- R. E. Franklin (1953), "Graphitizing and nongraphihastizing carbon compounds. Formation, structure and characteristics", Brenstoff-Chemie34: 359–361
- R. E. Franklin & R. G. Gosling (25 April 1953), "Molecular Configuration in Sodium Thymonucleate" (PDF)Nature171 (4356): 740–741, Bibcode:1953Natur.171..740F, doi:10.1038/171740a0, PMID 13054694retrieved 15 January 2011 Reprint also available at Resonance Classics
- Franklin, R. E.; Gosling, R. G. (1953). "The structure of sodium thymonucleate fibres. I. The influence of water content". Acta Crystallographica. 6 (8): 673–677. doi:10.1107/S0365110X53001939.
- Franklin, R. E.; Gosling, R. G. (1953). "The structure of sodium thymonucleate fibres. II. The cylindrically symmetrical Patterson function". Acta Crystallographica. 6 (8): 678–685. doi:10.1107/S0365110X53001940.
- R.E. Franklin & M. Mering (1954), "La structure de l'acide graphitique", Acta Crystallographica7 (10): 661–661, doi:10.1107/s0365110x54002137
- Rosalind Franklin & K. C. Holmes. (1956), "The Helical Arrangement of the Protein Sub-Units in Tobacco Mosaic Virus" (PDF)Biochimica et Biophysica Acta21: 405–406, doi:10.1016/0006-3002(56)90043-9, PMID 13363941retrieved 14 January 2011 Article access per National Library of Medicine above
- Rosalind E. Franklina & A. Klug (1956), "The nature of the helical groove on the tobacco mosaic virus particle X-ray diffraction studies", Biochimica et Biophysica Acta19 (3): 403–416, doi:10.1016/0006-3002(56)90463-2, PMID 13315300
- Klug, Aaron, J. T. Finch, and Rosalind Franklin (1957), "The Structure of Turnip Yellow Mosaic Virus: X-Ray Diffraction Studies" (PDF)Biochimica et Biophysica Acta25 (2): 242–252, doi:10.10 16/0006-3002(57)90465-1, PMID 13471561retrieved 14 January 2011 Per National Library of Medicine aboveCS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
- Franklin, Rosalind, Aaron Klug, J. T. Finch, and K. C. Holmes (1958), "On the Structure of Some Ribonucleoprotein Particles" (PDF)Discussions of the Faraday Society25: 197–198, doi:10.1039/DF9582500197retrieved 14 January 2011 Per National Library of MedicineCS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
- Klug, Aaron & Rosalind Franklin (1958), "Order-Disorder Transitions in Structures Containing Helical Molecules" (PDF)Discussions of the Faraday Society25: 104–110, doi:10.1039/DF9582500104retrieved 14 J anuary 2011 Per National Library of Medicine
- Klug, Aaron, Rosalind Franklin, and S. P. F. Humphreys-Owen (1959), "The Crystal Structure of Tipula Iridescent Virus as Determined by Bragg Reflection of Visible Light" (PDF)Biochimica et Biophysica Acta32 (1): 203–219, doi:10.1016/0006-3002(59)90570-0, PMID 13628733retrieved 14 January 2011 Per National Library of MedicineCS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
- Franklin, Rosalind, Donald L. D. Caspar, and Aaron Klug (1959), "Chapter XL: The Structure of Viruses as Determined by X-Ray Diffraction", Plant Pathology: Problems and Progress, 1908–1958 (PDF)University of Wisconsin Press, pp. 447–461retrieved 14 January 2011 Per Na tional Library of MedicineCS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
- ^ "The Rosalind Franklin Papers, Biographical Information". profiles.nlm.nih.gov. Retrieved 13 November 2011.
- ^ a b c d e "The Rosalind Franklin Papers, The Holes in Coal: Research at BCURA and in Paris, 1942–1951". profiles.nlm.nih.gov. Retrieved 13 November 2011.
- ^ Glynn, p. 60.
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- ^ Fact sheet: Women at Cambridge: A Chronology[1]. Archived 14 January 2012 at the Wayback Machine
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- ^ "All hands to the pump" letter is preserved in the Crick archives at the University of California, San Diego, and was posted as part of their Web collection. It is also quoted by both Maddox, p 204, and Olby.
- ^ a b Maddox, p. 207.
- ^ In contrast to his other letters to Crick, Wilkins dated this one.
- ^ "Old rogues" letter is preserved in the Crick archives at the University of California at San Diego, and was posted as part of their web collection. It is also quoted by both Maddox, p. 208, and Olby.
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- ^ Maddox, p. 235.
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- ^ Maddox, p. 252.
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- ^ Franklin et al.1958.
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