Tierversuche - Wikipedia

Tierversuche
Beschreibung	In Experimenten werden jährlich etwa 50 bis 100 Millionen Wirbeltiere eingesetzt.
Testpersonen	Versuchstiere, Wissenschaft, Medizin, Tierschutz, Tier Rechte, Ethik

Tierversuche auch bekannt als Tierversuche Tierversuche und in vivo Testen, wird verwendet nicht-menschliche Tiere in Experimenten, die versuchen, die Variablen zu kontrollieren, die das Verhalten oder das untersuchte biologische System beeinflussen. Dieser Ansatz kann Feldstudien gegenübergestellt werden, bei denen Tiere in ihrer natürlichen Umgebung oder ihren Lebensräumen beobachtet werden. Tierversuche werden in der Regel an Universitäten, medizinischen Fakultäten, Pharmafirmen, Verteidigungsanstalten und kommerziellen Einrichtungen durchgeführt, die Tierversuche für die Industrie erbringen. ^[1] Der Schwerpunkt der Tierversuche richtet sich nach der reinen Forschung und konzentriert sich auf die Entwicklung von Grundlagen Wissen über einen Organismus bis hin zu angewandter Forschung, die sich auf die Beantwortung einiger Fragen von großer praktischer Bedeutung konzentrieren kann, z. B. auf die Heilung einer Krankheit. Beispiele angewandter Forschung umfassen das Testen von Krankheitsbehandlungen, Züchtung, Verteidigungsforschung und Toxikologie, einschließlich kosmetischer Tests. In der Ausbildung sind Tierversuche manchmal Bestandteil von Biologie- oder Psychologiekursen. Die Praxis ist in verschiedenen Ländern unterschiedlich stark reguliert.

Es wird geschätzt, dass die jährliche Verwendung von Wirbeltieren - vom Zebrafisch bis zu nichtmenschlichen Primaten - zehn bis über 100 Millionen Menschen beträgt. ^[2] In der Europäischen Union machen Wirbeltiere 93% der in der Forschung verwendeten Tiere aus. 2011 wurden dort 11,5 Millionen Tiere eingesetzt. Nach einer Schätzung betrug die Zahl der allein in den USA im Jahr 2001 eingesetzten Mäuse und Ratten 80 Millionen. ^[3] Mäuse, Ratten, Fische, Amphibien und Reptilien machen zusammen über 85% der Tiere aus Forschungstiere. ^[4]

Die meisten Tiere werden nach der Verwendung in einem Experiment euthanasiert. ^[5] Quellen von Versuchstieren variieren zwischen Ländern und Arten; Die meisten Tiere sind zweckgebunden, während eine Minderheit in freier Wildbahn gefangen oder von Händlern zur Verfügung gestellt wird, die sie von Auktionen und Pfund beziehen. ^[6][7][8] Befürworter der Verwendung von Tieren in Experimenten, wie die British Royal Society, argumentieren praktisch alle Die medizinische Errungenschaft des 20. Jahrhunderts stützte sich in gewisser Weise auf die Verwendung von Tieren. ^[9] Das Institut für Labortierforschung der National Academy of Sciences der Vereinigten Staaten hat argumentiert, dass Tierforschung nicht durch ausgeklügelte Computermodelle ersetzt werden kann, die dies nicht können mit den äußerst komplexen Wechselwirkungen zwischen Molekülen, Zellen, Geweben, Organen, Organismen und der Umwelt umzugehen. ^[10] Tierschutzorganisationen wie PETA und BUAV stellen die Notwendigkeit und Rechtmäßigkeit von Tierversuchen in Frage und argumentieren, dass dies grausam ist schlecht reguliert, dass der medizinische Fortschritt tatsächlich durch irreführende Tiermodelle, die die Auswirkungen auf den Menschen nicht zuverlässig vorhersagen können, behindert wird, dass einige der Tests veraltet sind, dh t Die Kosten überwiegen die Vorteile oder das Recht der Tiere, im Experiment nicht verwendet oder geschädigt zu werden. ^{[11][12][13][14][15][16]}

Definitionen [ edit

Die Begriffe Tierversuche, Tier Experimente, Tierversuche in vivo Tests und Vivisektion haben ähnliche Bezeichnungen, jedoch unterschiedliche Konnotationen. Wörtlich bedeutet "Vivisektion" das "Zerlegen" eines lebenden Tieres und bezieht sich historisch nur auf Experimente, bei denen lebende Tiere zerlegt wurden. Der Begriff wird gelegentlich verwendet, um auf jedes Experiment mit lebenden Tieren abwertend hinzuweisen; Die Encyclopædia Britannica definiert beispielsweise "Vivisektion" als: "Operation an einem lebenden Tier zu Versuchszwecken und nicht zu Heilungszwecken; breiter alle Experimente an lebenden Tieren", ^[11][17][18] obwohl Wörterbücher darauf hinweisen Eine weiter gefasste Definition wird "nur von Personen verwendet, die sich gegen eine solche Arbeit stellen". ^[19] Das Wort hat eine negative Bedeutung, was Folter, Leiden und Tod impliziert. ^[5] Das Wort "Vivisektion" wird von denjenigen bevorzugt, die sich dieser Forschung widersetzen , während Wissenschaftler typischerweise den Begriff "Tierversuche" verwenden. ^[20][21]

History [ edit

Die frühesten Hinweise auf Tierversuche finden sich in den Schriften der Griechen im 2. und 4. Kapitel Jahrhunderte v. Chr. Aristoteles und Erasistratus gehörten zu den ersten, die Versuche an lebenden Tieren durchführten. ^[22] Galen, ein römischer Arzt aus dem 2. Jahrhundert, zerlegte Schweine und Ziegen; er ist als "Vater der Vivisektion" bekannt. ^[23] Avenzoar, ein arabischer Arzt aus dem 12. Jahrhundert im maurischen Spanien, praktizierte auch die Zerlegung; Er führte Tierversuche als experimentelle Methode ein, um chirurgische Verfahren zu testen, bevor sie an menschlichen Patienten angewandt wurden. ^[25]

Tiere wurden in der Geschichte der Biomedizin immer wieder verwendet Forschung. 1831 waren die Gründer des Dubliner Zoo Angehörige der Ärzteschaft, die sich zu Lebzeiten und während ihrer Toten für Tierstudien interessierten. ^[26] In den 1880er Jahren demonstrierte Louis Pasteur überzeugend die Keimtheorie der Medizin, indem er Anthrax induzierte in Schafen. ^[27] In den 1880er Jahren infizierte Robert Koch Mäuse und Meerschweinchen mit Anthrax und Tuberkulose. In den 1890er Jahren benutzte Ivan Pavlov die klassische Konditionierung von Hunden. ^[28] Im Ersten Weltkrieg infizierten deutsche Agenten Schafe, die nach Russland gebracht wurden, mit Anthrax und inokulierten Maultiere und Pferde der französischen Kavallerie mit der Erkrankung der Pferde-Drüsen. Zwischen 1917 und 1918 infizierten die Deutschen Maulesel in Argentinien für amerikanische Truppen, was 200 Männer zum Tode brachte. ^[29] Das erste Insulin wurde 1922 aus Hunden isoliert und revolutionierte die Behandlung von Diabetes. ^[30] Am 3. November 1957 , ein sowjetischer Hund, Laika, war das erste von vielen Tieren, die die Erde umkreisten. In den 70er Jahren wurden unter Verwendung von Armadillos Antibiotika-Behandlungen und Impfstoffe gegen Lepra entwickelt, ^[31] die dann an Menschen verabreicht wurden. ^[32] Die Fähigkeit des Menschen, die Genetik von Tieren zu verändern, machte 1974 einen großen Schritt, als Rudolf Jaenisch produzieren konnte das erste transgene Säugetier durch Integration von DNA aus dem SV40-Virus in das Genom von Mäusen. ^[33] Diese genetische Forschung schreitet rasch voran und 1996 wurde das Schaf Dolly geboren, das erste Säugetier, das aus einer erwachsenen Zelle geklont wurde. [19459067[34] ^[35]

Toxikologietests wurden im 20. Jahrhundert wichtig. Im 19. Jahrhundert wurden die Gesetze zur Regulierung von Drogen gelockert. In den USA konnte die Regierung beispielsweise ein Medikament nur verbieten, nachdem ein Unternehmen wegen des Verkaufs von Produkten, die Kunden schaden, strafrechtlich verfolgt worden war. Als Reaktion auf die Elixir-Sulfanilamid-Katastrophe von 1937, bei der das gleichnamige Medikament mehr als 100 Benutzer getötet hatte, erließ der US-Kongress jedoch Gesetze, nach denen Sicherheitstests von Medikamenten an Tieren vorgenommen wurden, bevor sie in Verkehr gebracht werden konnten. Andere Länder haben ähnliche Gesetze erlassen. ^[36] In den 1960er Jahren wurden in Reaktion auf die Thalidomid-Tragödie weitere Gesetze erlassen, die Sicherheitstests für schwangere Tiere vor dem Verkauf eines Arzneimittels fordern. ^[37]

Historische Debatte [ edit ]

Claude Bernard, der als "Prinz der Vivisektoren" galt, ^[38] argumentierte, dass Tierversuche "für die Toxikologie und die Hygiene des Menschen völlig aussagekräftig sind". ^[39]

Als die Tierversuche zunahmen, besonders die Praxis der Vivisektion, Kritik und Kontroverse. Im Jahr 1655 sagte der Befürworter der galenischen Physiologie Edmund O'Meara, dass "die elende Folterung der Vivisektion den Körper in einen unnatürlichen Zustand versetzt". ^[40][41] O'Meara und andere argumentierten, dass die Tierphysiologie bei der Vivisektion durch Schmerzen beeinflusst werden könnte Ergebnisse unzuverlässig. Es gab auch Einwände auf ethischer Basis, da der Nutzen für den Menschen die Schädigung der Tiere nicht rechtfertigte. ^[41] Frühe Einwände gegen Tierversuche kamen auch aus einem anderen Blickwinkel - viele Menschen glaubten, Tiere seien dem Menschen unterlegen und so verschieden Ergebnisse von Tieren konnten nicht auf Menschen angewandt werden. ^[41]

Auf der anderen Seite der Debatte hielten die Befürworter der Tierversuche die Ansicht, Tierversuche seien für die Weiterentwicklung des medizinischen und biologischen Wissens erforderlich. Claude Bernard, der manchmal als "Prinz der Vivisektoren" ^[38] und Vater der Physiologie bekannt ist, und dessen Frau Marie Françoise Martin 1883 die erste Anti-Vivisection-Gesellschaft in Frankreich gründete ^[42]schrieb 1865 berühmt dass "die Wissenschaft vom Leben eine großartige und blendend beleuchtete Halle ist, die nur durch eine lange und schreckliche Küche zu erreichen ist". ^[43] Sie argumentiert, dass "Tierversuche ... für die Toxikologie und die Hygiene des Menschen völlig entscheidend sind ... die Wirkungen dieser Substanzen sind auf den Menschen die gleichen wie auf die Tiere, abgesehen von den unterschiedlichen Graden ", ^[39] Bernard etablierte Tierversuche als Teil der wissenschaftlichen Standardmethode. ^[44] [19659010ImJahr1896sagtederPhysiologeundArztDrWalterBCannon:"DieAntivivisektionistensinddiezweitederbeidenArtendieTheodoreRooseveltbeschriebalsersagte:"GesunderMenschenverstandohneGewissenkannzuVerbrechenführenaberGewissenohnegesundenMenschenverstandkanndazuführenTorheitdiedieMagddesVerbrechensist "" ^[45] Diese Spaltungen zwischen Tier- und Pro-Tier-Testgruppen wurden zum ersten Mal während der Brown-Dog-Affäre Anfang der 1900er Jahre in der Öffentlichkeit wahrgenommen, als Hunderte von Ärzten Studenten kollidierten mit Anti-Vivisectionists und der Polizei wegen eines Denkmals für einen vivisected Hund. ^[46]

Einer von Pavlovs Hunden mit einem Speichelbehälter und einem chirurgisch in den Maulkorb eingebrachten Schlauch, Pavlov Museum, 2005

das erste Tier Im britischen Parlament wurde ein Schutzgesetz verabschiedet, gefolgt vom Cruelty to Animals Act (1876), dem ersten Gesetz, das speziell auf Tierversuche abzielte. Das Gesetz wurde von Charles Darwin befördert, der im März 1871 an Ray Lankester schrieb: "Sie fragen nach meiner Meinung zur Vivisektion. Ich stimme der Aussage zu, dass sie für wirkliche Untersuchungen zur Physiologie berechtigt ist, nicht aber für bloß verdammte und abscheuliche Neugier. Sie ist es ein Thema, das mich vor Entsetzen krank macht, deshalb werde ich kein weiteres Wort darüber sagen, sonst schlafe ich nicht in der Nacht. " ^{[47] [48]} Anti-Vivisektionisten wurden in Großbritannien mehrere Organisationen gegründet, um die Tierforschung zu verteidigen: Die Physiological Society wurde 1876 gegründet, um Physiologen "gegenseitigen Nutzen und Schutz" zu geben, ^[49] der Association for the Advancement of Medicine by Die Forschung wurde 1882 gegründet und konzentrierte sich auf die Politikgestaltung, und die Research Defense Society (jetzt Understanding Animal Research) wurde 1908 gegründet, um Fakten über Tierversuche in diesem Land bekannt zu machen, die immense Bedeutung für das Wohlergehen von Ma Art und Weise solcher Experimente und die große Errettung des menschlichen Lebens und der Gesundheit, die ihnen direkt zuzurechnen ist. " ^[50]

Ein Widerstand gegen die Verwendung von Tieren in der medizinischen Forschung kam in den 1860er Jahren zum ersten Mal in den Vereinigten Staaten auf. Als Henry Bergh die American Society zur Verhütung von Tierquälerei (ASPCA) gründete, war die erste Anti-Vivisection-Organisation der Vereinigten Staaten die American AntiVivisection Society (AAVS), die 1883 gegründet wurde. Antivivisektionisten der Epoche glaubten allgemein, dass die Barmherzigkeit Verbreitung fand Die große Ursache der Zivilisation und der Vivisektion war grausam. In den USA waren die Bemühungen der Antivivisektionisten jedoch in jeder Legislaturperiode niedergeschlagen, überwältigt von der überlegenen Organisation und dem Einfluss der medizinischen Gemeinschaft. Insgesamt war diese Bewegung bis zum Erlass des Laboratory Animal Welfare Act 1966 wenig gesetzgeberisch erfolgreich. ^[51]

Pflege und Verwendung von Tieren [

Verordnungen und Gesetze [ edit ]

Die für Tiere in Laboratorien geltenden Vorschriften variieren je nach Art. In den USA sind nach den Bestimmungen des Animal Welfare Act und des Leitfadens zur Pflege und Verwendung von Labortieren (der Guide ), veröffentlicht von der National Academy of Sciences, alle Verfahren möglich kann an einem Tier durchgeführt werden, wenn erfolgreich argumentiert werden kann, dass es wissenschaftlich gerechtfertigt ist. Im Allgemeinen müssen sich die Forscher an den Tierarzt der Einrichtung und an dessen Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC) wenden, zu deren Pflege jede Forschungseinrichtung verpflichtet ist. ^[52] Die IACUC muss sicherstellen, dass Alternativen, einschließlich nicht tierischer Alternativen, in Betracht gezogen wurden, dass die Experimente nicht unnötig dupliziert werden und dass eine Schmerzlinderung gegeben ist, es sei denn, die Studie wird dadurch beeinträchtigt. Die IACUCs regulieren alle Wirbeltiere in Tests bei Institutionen, die Bundesmittel in den USA erhalten. Obwohl die Bestimmungen des Tierschutzgesetzes keine zweckgebundenen Nagetiere und Vögel enthalten, werden diese Arten im Rahmen der Richtlinien für öffentliche Gesundheitsdienste, die die IACUCs regeln, gleichermaßen geregelt. ^{[53] [54]} Die Richtlinie für den öffentlichen Gesundheitsdienst überwacht die Food and Drug Administration (FDA) und die Centers for Disease Control und Prevention (CDC). Das CDC führt Infektionskrankheitenforschung an nicht-menschlichen Primaten, Kaninchen, Mäusen und anderen Tieren durch, während die FDA-Anforderungen die Verwendung von Tieren in der pharmazeutischen Forschung abdecken. ^[55] Die Vorschriften des Animal Welfare Act (AWA) werden von der USDA durchgesetzt, während die Bestimmungen des Public Health Service von der OLAW und in vielen Fällen von AAALAC durchgesetzt werden.

Laut dem Bericht des US-amerikanischen Landwirtschaftsministeriums des Generalinspekteurs (OIG) aus dem Jahr 2014, in dem die Überwachung der Verwendung von Tieren während eines Zeitraums von drei Jahren untersucht wurde, "haben einige Ausschüsse für die Tierpflege und -verwendung von Tieren ... nicht angemessen gearbeitet." die experimentellen Verfahren an Tieren genehmigen, überwachen oder darüber berichten ". Die OIG stellte fest, dass "Tiere dadurch nicht immer eine grundlegende humane Pflege und Behandlung erhalten, und in einigen Fällen werden Schmerzen und Stress während und nach experimentellen Verfahren nicht minimiert". Dem Bericht zufolge wurde innerhalb eines Zeitraums von drei Jahren fast die Hälfte aller amerikanischen Laboratorien mit regulierten Arten wegen Verstößen gegen die AWA im Zusammenhang mit einer unzulässigen IACUC-Aufsicht zitiert. ^[56] Die USDA-OIG machte ähnliche Ergebnisse in einem Bericht von 2005. ^[57] Mit nur 120 Inspektoren beaufsichtigt das US-Landwirtschaftsministerium (USDA) mehr als 12.000 Einrichtungen, die in Forschung, Ausstellung, Zucht oder Handel mit Tieren involviert sind. [19459105[55] Andere kritisierten die Zusammensetzung der IACUCs und behaupteten, die Komitees seien überwiegend aus Tierforschern und Vertretern der Universität zusammengesetzt, die möglicherweise gegen Tierschutzinteressen seien. ^[58]

Larry Carbone, ein Labortiertierarzt , schreibt er, dass IACUCs seine Arbeit unabhängig von der jeweiligen Art sehr ernst nehmen, obwohl der Einsatz von nichtmenschlichen Primaten immer das, was er als "rote Flagge von besonderer Bedeutung" bezeichnet, aufwirft. ^[59] Eine im Juli 2001 veröffentlichte Studie Science bestätigte die geringe Zuverlässigkeit der IACUC-Bewertungen von Tierversuchen. Die von der National Science Foundation finanzierte dreijährige Studie ergab, dass Tierschutzkommissionen, die die Besonderheiten der Universität und des Personals nicht kennen, nicht die gleichen Zulassungsentscheidungen treffen wie die Tierschutzkommissionen, die die Universität und kennen Personal. Verblindete Ausschüsse fordern häufiger mehr Informationen als Studiengenehmigungen. ^[60]

Wissenschaftler in Indien protestieren gegen eine kürzlich von der University Grants Commission herausgegebene Richtlinie, die die Verwendung lebender Tiere an Universitäten verbietet und Laboratorien. ^[61]

Numbers [ edit ]

Genaue globale Zahlen für Tierversuche sind schwer zu erhalten; Es wird geschätzt, dass jedes Jahr auf der ganzen Welt 100 Millionen Wirbeltiere experimentiert werden ^[62] . 10–11 Millionen davon in der EU. ^[63] Der Nuffield Council on Bioethics berichtet, dass die jährlichen Schätzungen weltweit zwischen 50 und 100 Millionen Tieren betragen. Keine der Zahlen umfasst Wirbellose wie Garnelen und Fruchtfliegen. ^[64]

Das USDA / APHIS hat die Tierforschungsstatistik 2016 veröffentlicht. Insgesamt stieg die Anzahl der Tiere (die unter das Animal Welfare Act fallen) in der Forschung in den USA um 6,9% von 767.622 (2015) auf 820.812 (2016). ^[65] Dies umfasst sowohl öffentliche als auch private Institutionen. Durch den Vergleich mit EU-Daten, in denen alle Wirbeltierarten gezählt werden, schätzte Speaking of Research, dass in den USA 2016 rund 12 Millionen Wirbeltiere in der Forschung verwendet wurden. ^[66] Ein Artikel aus dem Jahr 2015, der im Journal of Medical Ethics veröffentlicht wurde, argumentierte, dass die Verwendung von Tieren in den USA in den letzten Jahren dramatisch zugenommen hat. Die Forscher stellten fest, dass dieser Anstieg größtenteils auf eine stärkere Abhängigkeit von gentechnisch veränderten Mäusen im Tierversuch zurückzuführen ist. ^[67]

1995 schätzten Forscher des Tufts University Center for Animals und Public Policy 14–21 Millionen Tiere wurden 1992 in amerikanischen Laboratorien eingesetzt, ein Rückgang von 50 Millionen im Jahr 1970. ^[68] 1986 berichtete das US-amerikanische Kongressbüro für Technologiebewertung, dass die Schätzungen der in den USA verwendeten Tiere zwischen 10 Millionen und über 100 Millionen pro Jahr liegen und dass ihre eigene beste Schätzung mindestens 17 Millionen bis 22 Millionen betrug. ^[69] Im Jahr 2016 listete das Landwirtschaftsministerium 60.979 Hunde, 18.898 Katzen, 71.188 nichtmenschliche Primaten, 183.237 Meerschweinchen, 102.633 Hamster, 139.391 Kaninchen, 83.059 Nutztiere und 161.467 andere Säugetiere, insgesamt 820.812, eine Zahl, die alle Säugetiere umfasst ausgenommen zweckgerichtete Mäuse und Ratten. Die Verwendung von Hunden und Katzen in der Forschung in den USA ging von 1973 bis 2016 von 195,157 auf 60,979 bzw. von 66,165 auf 18,898 zurück. ^[66]

In GB zeigen Zahlen des Innenministeriums, dass 3,79 Millionen Verfahren wurden 2017 durchgeführt. ^[70] 2.960 Verfahren verwendeten nichtmenschliche Primaten, ein Rückgang von über 50% seit 1988. Ein "Verfahren" bezieht sich hier auf ein Experiment, das Minuten, mehrere Monate oder Jahre dauern kann. Die meisten Tiere werden nur in einem Verfahren verwendet: Tiere werden nach dem Experiment häufig eingeschläfert; Der Tod ist jedoch der Endpunkt einiger Verfahren. ^[64]
Die Verfahren, die 2017 in Großbritannien an Tieren durchgeführt wurden, wurden kategorisiert als

• 43% (1,61 Millionen) wurden als Unterschwelle eingestuft.


• 4% (0,14 Millionen) wurden als Nichtgewinnung eingestuft.


• 36% (1,35 Millionen) wurden als mild bewertet


• 15% (0,55) Millionen) wurden als mäßig bewertet


• 4% (0,14 Millionen) wurden als schwer eingestuft ^[71]

Ein "schweres" Verfahren wäre zum Beispiel jeder Test, bei dem der Tod der Endpunkt ist oder Todesfälle auftreten erwartet werden, während ein "mildes" Verfahren so etwas wie ein Bluttest oder ein MRI-Scan wäre. ^[70]

Die drei Rs [ edit

Die drei R-Werte (3R-Werte) sind Leitprinzipien für eine ethischere Verwendung von Tieren beim Testen. Diese wurden zuerst von W.M.S. Russell und R. L. Burch im Jahr 1959. ^[72] Der Zustand des 3R:

1. Ersatz, der sich auf die bevorzugte Verwendung nicht tierischer Methoden gegenüber tierischen Methoden bezieht, wenn die gleichen wissenschaftlichen Ziele erreicht werden können. Diese Methoden umfassen Computermodellierung. ^[73]


2. Reduktion, die sich auf Methoden bezieht, die es Forschern ermöglichen, vergleichbare Informationsniveaus von weniger Tieren oder mehr Informationen von derselben Anzahl von Tieren zu erhalten. [19659074] Verfeinerung, die sich auf Methoden bezieht, die potenzielle Schmerzen, Leiden oder Leiden lindern oder minimieren und das Wohlergehen der Tiere für die verwendeten Tiere verbessern. Zu diesen Methoden gehören nicht-invasive Techniken. ^[73]

Die 3R haben einen breiteren Anwendungsbereich als die Ermutigung von Alternativen zu Tierversuchen, zielen jedoch auf die Verbesserung des Tierschutzes und der wissenschaftlichen Qualität ab, wenn die Verwendung von Tieren nicht vermieden werden kann. Diese 3Rs sind inzwischen in vielen Testbetrieben weltweit implementiert und wurden von verschiedenen Gesetzen und Vorschriften übernommen. ^[74]

Trotz der weit verbreiteten Akzeptanz der 3Rs, viele Länder - einschließlich Kanada, Australien - Israel, Südkorea und Deutschland - berichteten in den letzten Jahren von einem zunehmenden experimentellen Einsatz von Tieren, wobei der Einsatz von Mäusen und in einigen Fällen von Fischen zunahm, während der Rückgang von Katzen, Hunden, Primaten, Kaninchen, Meerschweinchen und Hamstern gemeldet wurde . Wie auch in anderen Ländern hat China auch die Verwendung von GV-Tieren eskaliert, was zu einer Zunahme des Tierverbrauchs insgesamt geführt hat. ^{[67] [75] [76] [19650089] [78] [79] [80]}

Wirbellose Tiere ]

Fruchtfliegen sind Wirbeltiere, die üblicherweise in Tierversuchen verwendet werden.

In Tierversuchen werden viel mehr Wirbellose als Wirbeltiere eingesetzt, diese Studien sind jedoch weitgehend gesetzlich nicht geregelt. Die am häufigsten verwendeten wirbellosen Arten sind Drosophila melanogaster eine Fruchtfliege und Caenorhabditis elegans ein Nematodenwurm. Im Fall von C. elegans der Körper des Wurms ist vollständig transparent und die genaue Abstammung aller Zellen des Organismus ist bekannt, ^[81] während Studien in der Fliege D. Melanogaster kann eine erstaunliche Reihe genetischer Werkzeuge verwenden. ^[82] Diese wirbellosen Tiere bieten im Tierversuch einige Vorteile gegenüber Wirbeltieren, einschließlich ihres kurzen Lebenszyklus und der Leichtigkeit, mit der eine große Anzahl von Tieren untergebracht und untersucht werden kann. Das Fehlen eines anpassungsfähigen Immunsystems und ihre einfachen Organe verhindern jedoch, dass Würmer in verschiedenen Aspekten der medizinischen Forschung wie der Entwicklung von Impfstoffen verwendet werden. ^[83] In ähnlicher Weise unterscheidet sich das Immunsystem der Fruchtfliege stark von dem des Menschen, ^[84] und Krankheiten bei Insekten können sich von Erkrankungen bei Wirbeltieren unterscheiden; ^[85] jedoch auch Fruchtfliegen und Wachswürmer kann in Studien zur Identifizierung neuer Virulenzfaktoren oder pharmakologisch aktiver Verbindungen nützlich sein. ^{[86] [19650097] [87] [88]}

Mehrere Invertebratensysteme werden als akzeptable Alternativen zu Wirbeltieren angesehen Entdeckungsbildschirme. ^[89] Aufgrund der Ähnlichkeiten zwischen dem angeborenen Immunsystem von Insekten und Säugetieren können Insekten Säugetiere in einigen Arten von Studien ersetzen. Drosophila melanogaster und der Wachswurm Galleria mellonella waren für die Analyse der Virulenzmerkmale von Säugetierpathogenen von besonderer Bedeutung. ^{[86] [1965900] [19650000] [87] [194569020] Wachswürmer und andere Insekten haben sich auch zur Identifizierung von pharmazeutischen Verbindungen mit günstiger Bioverfügbarkeit als wertvoll erwiesen. [88] Die Entscheidung für die Einführung solcher Modelle beinhaltet im Allgemeinen, dass ein geringerer Grad an biologischer Ähnlichkeit mit Säugetieren akzeptiert wird, um den experimentellen Durchsatz signifikant zu steigern.}

Wirbeltiere [ edit ]

Diese Ratte wird mit einer einzigen Plattform ("Blumentopf") - Technik des erholsamen Schlafes beraubt. Das Wasser befindet sich innerhalb von 1 cm von der kleinen Plattform des Blumentopfs, auf der die Ratte sitzt. Zu Beginn des Schlafes fiel die Ratte entweder ins Wasser und kletterte zurück in den Topf, um ein Ertrinken zu vermeiden, oder ihre Nase tauchte in das Wasser ein und schockte es in einen erwachten Zustand zurück.

Die Anzahl der verwendeten Ratten und Mäuse wird auf 11 Millionen ^[66] bis 20 bis 100 Millionen pro Jahr geschätzt. ^[90] Andere häufig verwendete Nagetiere sind Meerschweinchen, Hamster und Rennmäuse. Mäuse sind die am häufigsten verwendeten Wirbeltierarten aufgrund ihrer Größe, niedrigen Kosten, einfachen Handhabung und schnellen Reproduktionsrate. ^{[91] [92]} Mäuse gelten allgemein als das beste Modell für erbliche Krankheiten des Menschen und teilen 99% ihrer Gene mit Menschen. ^[91] Mit dem Aufkommen der Gentechnologie können gentechnisch veränderte Mäuse auf Bestellung erzeugt werden und können Modelle für eine Reihe menschlicher Krankheiten liefern. ^[91] Ratten werden auch häufig für die Physiologie, Toxikologie und Krebsforschung verwendet, aber die genetische Manipulation ist bei Ratten viel schwieriger als bei Mäusen, was die Verwendung dieser Nagetiere in der Grundlagenforschung einschränkt. ^[93] In Großbritannien wurden 2016 über 500.000 Fische und 9.000 Amphibien eingesetzt. ^[94] Die Hauptart ist der Zebrafisch Danio rerio der im Embryonalstadium durchscheinend ist, und der afrikanische Krallenfrosch Xenopus laevis . Im Jahr 2004 wurden in Großbritannien über 20.000 Kaninchen für Tierversuche verwendet. Albino-Kaninchen werden in Augenreizungstests (Draize-Test) verwendet, da Kaninchen weniger Tränenfluss als andere Tiere haben und das Auge fehlt Pigmente in Albinos erleichtern die Visualisierung der Effekte. Die Anzahl der für diesen Zweck verwendeten Kaninchen ist in den letzten zwei Jahrzehnten erheblich gesunken. 1996 gab es in Großbritannien 3.693 Verfahren gegen Augenreizungen, ^[96] und im Jahr 2017 waren es gerade mal 63. ^[94] Kaninchen werden auch häufig zur Herstellung von polyklonalen Antikörpern verwendet.

Katzen [ edit ]

Katzen werden am häufigsten in der neurologischen Forschung verwendet. 18.898 Katzen wurden in den USA im Jahr 2016 eingesetzt, ^[66] . Rund ein Drittel davon wurde in Experimenten verwendet, die das Potenzial haben, "Schmerzen und / oder Leiden" zu verursachen. ^[97] obwohl nur 0,1% der Katzenexperimente potenzielle Schmerzen aufwiesen, die von Anästhetika / Analgetika nicht gelindert wurden. In Großbritannien wurden im Jahr 2017 nur 198 Verfahren für Katzen durchgeführt. In den meisten Jahren des letzten Jahrzehnts waren es etwa 200. ^[94]

Dogs [ edit

Hunde werden in der biomedizinischen Forschung, im Test und in der Ausbildung häufig eingesetzt - besonders bei Beagles, weil sie sanft und einfach zu handhaben sind und Vergleiche mit historischen Daten von Beagles ermöglichen (eine Reduktionsmethode). Sie werden als Modelle für humane und veterinärmedizinische Erkrankungen in der Kardiologie, Endokrinologie sowie in Knochen- und Gelenkstudien verwendet, eine Forschung, die nach Angaben der Humane Society der Vereinigten Staaten tendenziell hochinvasiv ist. ^[98] Die häufigste Verwendung von Hunden ist die Sicherheitsbewertung neuer Arzneimittel ^[99] für die Verwendung bei Menschen oder Tieren als zweite Tierart nach Tests an Nagetieren gemäß den Bestimmungen der Internationalen Harmonisierungskonferenz der technischen Anforderungen für die Registrierung von Humanarzneimitteln.

Der Animal Welfare Report des US-Landwirtschaftsministeriums zeigt, dass im Jahr 2016 60.979 Hunde in USDA-registrierten Einrichtungen eingesetzt wurden. ^[66] Im Vereinigten Königreich gab es laut dem britischen Innenministerium im Jahr 2017 3.847 Verfahren gegen Hunde. ^[94] Von den anderen großen EU-Hundenutzern führte Deutschland im Jahr 2016 3'976 Verfahren gegen Hunde durch ^[100] und Frankreich führte im Jahr 2016 4.204 Verfahren durch. ^[101] In beiden Fällen entspricht dies weniger als 0,2% der Gesamtzahl der Verfahren, die in den jeweiligen Ländern an Tieren durchgeführt werden.

Nichtmenschliche Primaten [ edit ]

Nichtmenschliche Primaten (NHPs) werden in toxikologischen Tests, Untersuchungen von AIDS und Hepatitis verwendet Studien über Neurologie, Verhalten und Wahrnehmung, Reproduktion, Genetik und Xenotransplantation. Sie werden in freier Wildbahn gefangen oder zu Zweck gezüchtet. In den Vereinigten Staaten und in China werden die meisten Primaten im Inland gezüchtet, während die Mehrheit in Europa zweckmäßig gezüchtet wird. ^[102] Die Europäische Kommission berichtete, dass im Jahr 2011 6 012 Affen in europäischen Laboratorien experimentiert wurden. ^[103] Nach Angaben des US-Landwirtschaftsministeriums gab es 2016 71.188 Affen in den US-Labors. ^[66] 2014 wurden 23.465 Affen in die USA importiert, darunter 929 in freier Wildbahn gefangen. ^[104] Die meisten der in Experimenten verwendeten NHPs sind Makaken; ^[105] aber auch Marmosets, Spinnenaffen und Eichhörnchenaffen werden verwendet, und in den USA werden Paviane und Schimpansen verwendet. Ab 2015 ^[update] gibt es ungefähr 730 Schimpansen in US-amerikanischen Laboratorien. ^[106]

Bei einer Untersuchung im Jahr 2003 wurde festgestellt, dass 89% der Einzelunterkünfte waren Primaten zeigten selbstverletzende oder anormale stereotypische Verhaltensweisen, unter anderem Tempo, Schütteln, Haare ziehen und Beißen. ^[107]

Der erste transgene Primas wurde 2001 mit der Entwicklung einer Methode hergestellt könnten neue Gene in einen Rhesusaffen einführen. ^[108] Diese transgene Technologie wird nun bei der Suche nach einer Behandlung der genetischen Erkrankung Huntington eingesetzt. ^[109] Bemerkenswerte Studien zu nichtmenschlichen Primaten waren Teil der Entwicklung von Polioimpfstoffen und der Entwicklung der tiefen Hirnstimulation, und ihre derzeit schwerste nicht-toxikologische Anwendung findet im Affen-AIDS-Modell, SIV. ^{[9] [105] [110]} Im Jahr 2008 hat ein Vorschlag, alle Versuche mit Primaten in der EU zu verbieten, eine heftige Debatte ausgelöst. ^[111]

Quellen [ edit

Von Laboren verwendete Tiere werden weitgehend geliefert von Fachhändlern. Die Quellen für Wirbeltiere und Wirbellose Tiere sind unterschiedlich. Most laboratories breed and raise flies and worms themselves, using strains and mutants supplied from a few main stock centers.^[112] For vertebrates, sources include breeders and dealers like Covance and Charles River Laboratories who supply purpose-bred and wild-caught animals; businesses that trade in wild animals such as Nafovanny; and dealers who supply animals sourced from pounds, auctions, and newspaper ads. Animal shelters also supply the laboratories directly.^[113] Large centers also exist to distribute strains of genetically modified animals; the International Knockout Mouse Consortium, for example, aims to provide knockout mice for every gene in the mouse genome.^[114]

A laboratory mouse cage. Mice are either bred commercially, or raised in the laboratory.

In the U.S., Class A breeders are licensed by the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) to sell animals for research purposes, while Class B dealers are licensed to buy animals from "random sources" such as auctions, pound seizure, and newspaper ads. Some Class B dealers have been accused of kidnapping pets and illegally trapping strays, a practice known as bunching.^{[8][115][116][117][118][119]} It was in part out of public concern over the sale of pets to research facilities that the 1966 Laboratory Animal Welfare Act was ushered in—the Senate Committee on Commerce reported in 1966 that stolen pets had been retrieved from Veterans Administration facilities, the Mayo Institute, the University of Pennsylvania, Stanford University, and Harvard and Yale Medical Schools.^[120] The USDA recovered at least a dozen stolen pets during a raid on a Class B dealer in Arkansas in 2003.^[121]

Four states in the U.S.—Minnesota, Utah, Oklahoma, and Iowa—require their shelters to provide animals to research facilities. Fourteen states explicitly prohibit the practice, while the remainder either allow it or have no relevant legislation.^[122]

In the European Union, animal sources are governed by Council Directive 86/609/EECwhich requires lab animals to be specially bred, unless the animal has been lawfully imported and is not a wild animal or a stray. The latter requirement may also be exempted by special arrangement.^[123] In 2010 the Directive was revised with EU Directive 2010/63/EU.^[124] In the UK, most animals used in experiments are bred for the purpose under the 1988 Animal Protection Act, but wild-caught primates may be used if exceptional and specific justification can be established.^[125][126] The United States also allows the use of wild-caught primates; between 1995 and 1999, 1,580 wild baboons were imported into the U.S. Over half the primates imported between 1995 and 2000 were handled by Charles River Laboratories, or by Covance, which is the single largest importer of primates into the U.S.^[127]

Pain and suffering[edit]

The extent to which animal testing causes pain and suffering, and the capacity of animals to experience and comprehend them, is the subject of much debate.^[128][129]

According to the USDA, in 2016 501,560 animals (61%) (not including rats, mice, birds, or invertebrates) were used in procedures that did not include more than momentary pain or distress. 247,882 (31%) animals were used in procedures in which pain or distress was relieved by anesthesia, while 71,370 (9%) were used in studies that would cause pain or distress that would not be relieved.^[66]

Since 2014, in the UK, every research procedure was retrospectively assessed for severity. The five categories are "sub-threshold", "mild", "moderate", "severe" and "non-recovery", the latter being procedures in which an animal is anesthetized and subsequently killed without recovering consciousness. In 2017, 43% (1.61 million) were assessed as sub-threshold, 4% (0.14 million) were assessed as non-recovery, 36% (1.35 million) were assessed as mild, 15% (0.55 million) were assessed as moderate and 4% (0.14 million) were assessed as severe.^[71]

The idea that animals might not feel pain as human beings feel it traces back to the 17th-century French philosopher, René Descartes, who argued that animals do not experience pain and suffering because they lack consciousness.^[64][130]Bernard Rollin of Colorado State University, the principal author of two U.S. federal laws regulating pain relief for animals,^[131] writes that researchers remained unsure into the 1980s as to whether animals experience pain, and that veterinarians trained in the U.S. before 1989 were simply taught to ignore animal pain.^[132] In his interactions with scientists and other veterinarians, he was regularly asked to "prove" that animals are conscious, and to provide "scientifically acceptable" grounds for claiming that they feel pain.^[132] Carbone writes that the view that animals feel pain differently is now a minority view. Academic reviews of the topic are more equivocal, noting that although the argument that animals have at least simple conscious thoughts and feelings has strong support,^[133] some critics continue to question how reliably animal mental states can be determined.^[64][134] However, some canine experts are stating that, while intelligence does differ animal to animal, dogs have the intelligence of a two to two-and-a-half year old. This does support the idea that dogs, at the very least, have some form of consciousness.^[135] The ability of invertebrates to experience pain and suffering is less clear, however, legislation in several countries (e.g. U.K., New Zealand,^[136] Norway^[137]) protects some invertebrate species if they are being used in animal testing.

In the U.S., the defining text on animal welfare regulation in animal testing is the Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals.^[138] This defines the parameters that govern animal testing in the U.S. It states "The ability to experience and respond to pain is widespread in the animal kingdom...Pain is a stressor and, if not relieved, can lead to unacceptable levels of stress and distress in animals." The Guide states that the ability to recognize the symptoms of pain in different species is vital in efficiently applying pain relief and that it is essential for the people caring for and using animals to be entirely familiar with these symptoms. On the subject of analgesics used to relieve pain, the Guide states "The selection of the most appropriate analgesic or anesthetic should reflect professional judgment as to which best meets clinical and humane requirements without compromising the scientific aspects of the research protocol". Accordingly, all issues of animal pain and distress, and their potential treatment with analgesia and anesthesia, are required regulatory issues in receiving animal protocol approval.^[139]

Euthanasia[edit]

Regulations require that scientists use as few animals as possible, especially for terminal experiments.^[140] However, while policy makers consider suffering to be the central issue and see animal euthanasia as a way to reduce suffering, others, such as the RSPCA, argue that the lives of laboratory animals have intrinsic value.^[141] Regulations focus on whether particular methods cause pain and suffering, not whether their death is undesirable in itself.^[142] The animals are euthanized at the end of studies for sample collection or post-mortem examination; during studies if their pain or suffering falls into certain categories regarded as unacceptable, such as depression, infection that is unresponsive to treatment, or the failure of large animals to eat for five days;^[143] or when they are unsuitable for breeding or unwanted for some other reason.^[144]

Methods of euthanizing laboratory animals are chosen to induce rapid unconsciousness and death without pain or distress.^[145] The methods that are preferred are those published by councils of veterinarians. The animal can be made to inhale a gas, such as carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide, by being placed in a chamber, or by use of a face mask, with or without prior sedation or anesthesia. Sedatives or anesthetics such as barbiturates can be given intravenously, or inhalant anesthetics may be used. Amphibians and fish may be immersed in water containing an anesthetic such as tricaine. Physical methods are also used, with or without sedation or anesthesia depending on the method. Recommended methods include decapitation (beheading) for small rodents or rabbits. Cervical dislocation (breaking the neck or spine) may be used for birds, mice, and immature rats and rabbits. Maceration (grinding into small pieces) is used on 1 day old chicks.^{[citation needed]} High-intensity microwave irradiation of the brain can preserve brain tissue and induce death in less than 1 second, but this is currently only used on rodents. Captive bolts may be used, typically on dogs, ruminants, horses, pigs and rabbits. It causes death by a concussion to the brain. Gunshot may be used, but only in cases where a penetrating captive bolt may not be used. Some physical methods are only acceptable after the animal is unconscious. Electrocution may be used for cattle, sheep, swine, foxes, and mink after the animals are unconscious, often by a prior electrical stun. Pithing (inserting a tool into the base of the brain) is usable on animals already unconscious. Slow or rapid freezing, or inducing air embolism are acceptable only with prior anesthesia to induce unconsciousness.^[146]

Research classification[edit]

Pure research[edit]

Basic or pure research investigates how organisms behave, develop, and function. Those opposed to animal testing object that pure research may have little or no practical purpose, but researchers argue that it forms the necessary basis for the development of applied research, rendering the distinction between pure and applied research—research that has a specific practical aim—unclear.^[147] Pure research uses larger numbers and a greater variety of animals than applied research. Fruit flies, nematode worms, mice and rats together account for the vast majority, though small numbers of other species are used, ranging from sea slugs through to armadillos.^[148] Examples of the types of animals and experiments used in basic research include:

• Studies on embryogenesis and developmental biology. Mutants are created by adding transposons into their genomes, or specific genes are deleted by gene targeting.^[149][150] By studying the changes in development these changes produce, scientists aim to understand both how organisms normally develop, and what can go wrong in this process. These studies are particularly powerful since the basic controls of development, such as the homeobox genes, have similar functions in organisms as diverse as fruit flies and man.^[151][152]


• Experiments into behaviorto understand how organisms detect and interact with each other and their environment, in which fruit flies, worms, mice, and rats are all widely used.^[153][154] Studies of brain function, such as memory and social behavior, often use rats and birds.^[155][156] For some species, behavioral research is combined with enrichment strategies for animals in captivity because it allows them to engage in a wider range of activities.^[157]


• Breeding experiments to study evolution and genetics. Laboratory mice, flies, fish, and worms are inbred through many generations to create strains with defined characteristics.^[158] These provide animals of a known genetic background, an important tool for genetic analyses. Larger mammals are rarely bred specifically for such studies due to their slow rate of reproduction, though some scientists take advantage of inbred domesticated animals, such as dog or cattle breeds, for comparative purposes. Scientists studying how animals evolve use many animal species to see how variations in where and how an organism lives (their niche) produce adaptations in their physiology and morphology. As an example, sticklebacks are now being used to study how many and which types of mutations are selected to produce adaptations in animals' morphology during the evolution of new species.^[159][160]

Applied research[edit]

Applied research aims to solve specific and practical problems. These may involve the use of animal models of diseases or conditions, which are often discovered or generated by pure research programmes. In turn, such applied studies may be an early stage in the drug discovery process. Beispiele beinhalten:

• Genetic modification of animals to study disease. Transgenic animals have specific genes inserted, modified or removed, to mimic specific conditions such as single gene disorders, such as Huntington's disease.^[161] Other models mimic complex, multifactorial diseases with genetic components, such as diabetes,^[162] or even transgenic mice that carry the same mutations that occur during the development of cancer.^[163] These models allow investigations on how and why the disease develops, as well as providing ways to develop and test new treatments.^[164] The vast majority of these transgenic models of human disease are lines of mice, the mammalian species in which genetic modification is most efficient.^[91] Smaller numbers of other animals are also used, including rats, pigs, sheep, fish, birds, and amphibians.^[126]


• Studies on models of naturally occurring disease and condition. Certain domestic and wild animals have a natural propensity or predisposition for certain conditions that are also found in humans. Cats are used as a model to develop immunodeficiency virus vaccines and to study leukemia because their natural predisposition to FIV and Feline leukemia virus.^[165][166] Certain breeds of dog suffer from narcolepsy making them the major model used to study the human condition. Armadillos and humans are among only a few animal species that naturally suffer from leprosy; as the bacteria responsible for this disease cannot yet be grown in culture, armadillos are the primary source of bacilli used in leprosy vaccines.^[148]


• Studies on induced animal models of human diseases. Here, an animal is treated so that it develops pathology and symptoms that resemble a human disease. Examples include restricting blood flow to the brain to induce stroke, or giving neurotoxins that cause damage similar to that seen in Parkinson's disease.^[167] Such studies can be difficult to interpret, and it is argued that they are not always comparable to human diseases.^[168] For example, although such models are now widely used to study Parkinson's disease, the British anti-vivisection interest group BUAV argues that these models only superficially resemble the disease symptoms, without the same time course or cellular pathology.^[169] In contrast, scientists assessing the usefulness of animal models of Parkinson's disease, as well as the medical research charity The Parkinson's Appealstate that these models were invaluable and that they led to improved surgical treatments such as pallidotomy, new drug treatments such as levodopa, and later deep brain stimulation.^{[110][167][170]}


• Animal testing has also included the use of placebo testing. In these cases animals are treated with a substance that produces no pharmacological effect, but is administered in order to determine any biological alterations due to the experience of a substance being administered, and the results are compared with those obtained with an active compound.

Xenotransplantation[edit]

Xenotransplantation research involves transplanting tissues or organs from one species to another, as a way to overcome the shortage of human organs for use in organ transplants.^[171] Current research involves using primates as the recipients of organs from pigs that have been genetically modified to reduce the primates' immune response against the pig tissue.^[172] Although transplant rejection remains a problem,^[172] recent clinical trials that involved implanting pig insulin-secreting cells into diabetics did reduce these people's need for insulin.^[173][174]

Documents released to the news media by the animal rights organization Uncaged Campaigns showed that, between 1994 and 2000, wild baboons imported to the UK from Africa by Imutran Ltd, a subsidiary of Novartis Pharma AG, in conjunction with Cambridge University and Huntingdon Life Sciences, to be used in experiments that involved grafting pig tissues, suffered serious and sometimes fatal injuries. A scandal occurred when it was revealed that the company had communicated with the British government in an attempt to avoid regulation.^[175][176]

Toxicology testing[edit]

Toxicology testing, also known as safety testing, is conducted by pharmaceutical companies testing drugs, or by contract animal testing facilities, such as Huntingdon Life Sciences, on behalf of a wide variety of customers.^[177] According to 2005 EU figures, around one million animals are used every year in Europe in toxicology tests; which are about 10% of all procedures.^[178] According to Nature5,000 animals are used for each chemical being tested, with 12,000 needed to test pesticides.^[179] The tests are conducted without anesthesia, because interactions between drugs can affect how animals detoxify chemicals, and may interfere with the results.^[180][181]

Toxicology tests are used to examine finished products such as pesticides, medications, food additives, packing materials, and air freshener, or their chemical ingredients. Most tests involve testing ingredients rather than finished products, but according to BUAV, manufacturers believe these tests overestimate the toxic effects of substances; they therefore repeat the tests using their finished products to obtain a less toxic label.^[177]

The substances are applied to the skin or dripped into the eyes; injected intravenously, intramuscularly, or subcutaneously; inhaled either by placing a mask over the animals and restraining them, or by placing them in an inhalation chamber; or administered orally, through a tube into the stomach, or simply in the animal's food. Doses may be given once, repeated regularly for many months, or for the lifespan of the animal.^{[citation needed]}

There are several different types of acute toxicity tests. The LD₅₀ ("Lethal Dose 50%") test is used to evaluate the toxicity of a substance by determining the dose required to kill 50% of the test animal population. This test was removed from OECD international guidelines in 2002, replaced by methods such as the fixed dose procedure, which use fewer animals and cause less suffering.^[182][183] Abbott writes that, as of 2005, "the LD50 acute toxicity test ... still accounts for one-third of all animal [toxicity] tests worldwide".^[179]

Irritancy can be measured using the Draize test, where a test substance is applied to an animal's eyes or skin, usually an albino rabbit. For Draize eye testing, the test involves observing the effects of the substance at intervals and grading any damage or irritation, but the test should be halted and the animal killed if it shows "continuing signs of severe pain or distress".^[184] The Humane Society of the United States writes that the procedure can cause redness, ulceration, hemorrhaging, cloudiness, or even blindness.^[185] This test has also been criticized by scientists for being cruel and inaccurate, subjective, over-sensitive, and failing to reflect human exposures in the real world.^[186] Although no accepted in vitro alternatives exist, a modified form of the Draize test called the low volume eye test may reduce suffering and provide more realistic results and this was adopted as the new standard in September 2009.^[187][188] However, the Draize test will still be used for substances that are not severe irritants.^[188]

The most stringent tests are reserved for drugs and foodstuffs. For these, a number of tests are performed, lasting less than a month (acute), one to three months (subchronic), and more than three months (chronic) to test general toxicity (damage to organs), eye and skin irritancy, mutagenicity, carcinogenicity, teratogenicity, and reproductive problems. The cost of the full complement of tests is several million dollars per substance and it may take three or four years to complete.

These toxicity tests provide, in the words of a 2006 United States National Academy of Sciences report, "critical information for assessing hazard and risk potential".^[189] Animal tests may overestimate risk, with false positive results being a particular problem,^[179][190] but false positives appear not to be prohibitively common.^[191] Variability in results arises from using the effects of high doses of chemicals in small numbers of laboratory animals to try to predict the effects of low doses in large numbers of humans.^[192] Although relationships do exist, opinion is divided on how to use data on one species to predict the exact level of risk in another.^[193]

Scientists face growing pressure to move away from using traditional animal toxicity tests to determine whether manufactured chemicals are safe.^[194]
Among variety of approaches to toxicity evaluation the ones which have attracted increasing interests are in vitro cell-based sensing methods applying fluorescence.^[195]

Cosmetics testing[edit]

The "Leaping Bunny" logo: Some products in Europe that are not tested on animals carry this symbol.

Cosmetics testing on animals is particularly controversial. Such tests, which are still conducted in the U.S., involve general toxicity, eye and skin irritancy, phototoxicity (toxicity triggered by ultraviolet light) and mutagenicity.^[196]

Cosmetics testing on animals is banned in India, the European Union,^[197] Israel and Norway^[198][199] while legislation in the U.S. and Brazil is currently considering similar bans.^[200] In 2002, after 13 years of discussion, the European Union agreed to phase in a near-total ban on the sale of animal-tested cosmetics by 2009, and to ban all cosmetics-related animal testing. France, which is home to the world's largest cosmetics company, L'Oreal, has protested the proposed ban by lodging a case at the European Court of Justice in Luxembourg, asking that the ban be quashed.^[201] The ban is also opposed by the European Federation for Cosmetics Ingredients, which represents 70 companies in Switzerland, Belgium, France, Germany, and Italy.^[201] In October 2014, India passed stricter laws that also ban the importation of any cosmetic products that are tested on animals.^[202]

Drug testing[edit]

Before the early 20th century, laws regulating drugs were lax. Currently, all new pharmaceuticals undergo rigorous animal testing before being licensed for human use. Tests on pharmaceutical products involve:

• metabolic testsinvestigating pharmacokinetics—how drugs are absorbed, metabolized and excreted by the body when introduced orally, intravenously, intraperitoneally, intramuscularly, or transdermally.


• toxicology testswhich gauge acute, sub-acute, and chronic toxicity. Acute toxicity is studied by using a rising dose until signs of toxicity become apparent. Current European legislation demands that "acute toxicity tests must be carried out in two or more mammalian species" covering "at least two different routes of administration".^[203] Sub-acute toxicity is where the drug is given to the animals for four to six weeks in doses below the level at which it causes rapid poisoning, in order to discover if any toxic drug metabolites build up over time. Testing for chronic toxicity can last up to two years and, in the European Union, is required to involve two species of mammals, one of which must be non-rodent.^[204]


• efficacy studieswhich test whether experimental drugs work by inducing the appropriate illness in animals. The drug is then administered in a double-blind controlled trial, which allows researchers to determine the effect of the drug and the dose-response curve.


• Specific tests on reproductive functionembryonic toxicityor carcinogenic potential can all be required by law, depending on the result of other studies and the type of drug being tested.

Education[edit]

It is estimated that 20 million animals are used annually for educational purposes in the United States including, classroom observational exercises, dissections and live-animal surgeries.^[205][206] Frogs, fetal pigs, perch, cats, earthworms, grasshoppers, crayfish and starfish are commonly used in classroom dissections.^[207] Alternatives to the use of animals in classroom dissections are widely used, with many U.S. States and school districts mandating students be offered the choice to not dissect.^[208] Citing the wide availability of alternatives and the decimation of local frog species, India banned dissections in 2014.^[209][210]

The Sonoran Arthropod Institute hosts an annual Invertebrates in Education and Conservation Conference to discuss the use of invertebrates in education.^[211] There also are efforts in many countries to find alternatives to using animals in education.^[212] The NORINA database, maintained by Norecopa, lists products that may be used as alternatives or supplements to animal use in education, and in the training of personnel who work with animals.^[213] These include alternatives to dissection in schools. InterNICHE has a similar database and a loans system.^[214]

In November 2013, the U.S.-based company Backyard Brains released for sale to the public what they call the "Roboroach", an "electronic backpack" that can be attached to cockroaches. The operator is required to amputate a cockroach's antennae, use sandpaper to wear down the shell, insert a wire into the thorax, and then glue the electrodes and circuit board onto the insect's back. A mobile phone app can then be used to control it via Bluetooth.^[215] It has been suggested that the use of such a device may be a teaching aid that can promote interest in science. The makers of the "Roboroach" have been funded by the National Institute of Mental Health and state that the device is intended to encourage children to become interested in neuroscience.^[215][216]

Defense[edit]

Animals are used by the military to develop weapons, vaccines, battlefield surgical techniques, and defensive clothing.^[147] For example, in 2008 the United States Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency used live pigs to study the effects of improvised explosive device explosions on internal organs, especially the brain.^[217]

In the US military, goats are commonly used to train combat medics. (Goats have become the main animal species used for this purpose after the Pentagon phased out using dogs for medical training in the 1980s.^[218]) While modern mannequins used in medical training are quite efficient in simulating the behavior of a human body, some trainees feel that "the goat exercise provide[s] a sense of urgency that only real life trauma can provide".^[219] Nevertheless, in 2014, the U.S. Coast Guard announced that it would reduce the number of animals it uses in its training exercises by half after PETA released video showing Guard members cutting off the limbs of unconscious goats with tree trimmers and inflicting other injuries with a shotgun, pistol, ax and a scalpel.^[220] That same year, citing the availability of human simulators and other alternatives, the Department of Defense announced it would begin reducing the number of animals it uses in various training programs.^[221] In 2013, several Navy medical centers stopped using ferrets in intubation exercises after complaints from PETA.^[222]

Besides the United States, six out of 28 NATO countries, including Poland and Denmark, use live animals for combat medic training.^[218]

Viewpoints[edit]

The moral and ethical questions raised by performing experiments on animals are subject to debate, and viewpoints have shifted significantly over the 20th century.^[223] There remain disagreements about which procedures are useful for which purposes, as well as disagreements over which ethical principles apply to which species.

A 2015 Gallup poll found that 67% of Americans were "very concerned" or "somewhat concerned" about animals used in research.^[224] A Pew poll taken the same year found 50% of American adults opposed the use of animals in research.^[225]

Still, a wide range of viewpoints exist. The view that animals have moral rights (animal rights) is a philosophical position proposed by Tom Regan, among others, who argues that animals are beings with beliefs and desires, and as such are the "subjects of a life" with moral value and therefore moral rights.^[226] Regan still sees ethical differences between killing human and non-human animals, and argues that to save the former it is permissible to kill the latter. Likewise, a "moral dilemma" view suggests that avoiding potential benefit to humans is unacceptable on similar grounds, and holds the issue to be a dilemma in balancing such harm to humans to the harm done to animals in research.^[227] In contrast, an abolitionist view in animal rights holds that there is no moral justification for any harmful research on animals that is not to the benefit of the individual animal.^[227]Bernard Rollin argues that benefits to human beings cannot outweigh animal suffering, and that human beings have no moral right to use an animal in ways that do not benefit that individual. Another prominent position is that of philosopher Peter Singer, who argues that there are no grounds to include a being's species in considerations of whether their suffering is important in utilitarian moral considerations.^[228]Malcolm Macleod and collaborators argue that most controlled animal studies do not employ randomization, allocation concealment, and blinding outcome assessment, and that failure to employ these features exaggerates the apparent benefit of drugs tested in animals, leading to a failure to translate much animal research for human benefit.^{[229][230][231][232][233]}

Governments such as the Netherlands and New Zealand have responded to the public's concerns by outlawing invasive experiments on certain classes of non-human primates, particularly the great apes.^[234][235] In 2015, captive chimpanzees in the U.S. were added to the Endangered Species Act adding new road blocks to those wishing to experiment on them.^[236] Similarly, citing ethical considerations and the availability of alternative research methods, the U.S. NIH announced in 2013 that it would dramatically reduce and eventually phase out experiments on chimpanzees.^[237]

The British government has required that the cost to animals in an experiment be weighed against the gain in knowledge.^[238] Some medical schools and agencies in China, Japan, and South Korea have built cenotaphs for killed animals.^[239] In Japan there are also annual memorial services (Ireisai 慰霊祭) for animals sacrificed at medical school.

Various specific cases of animal testing have drawn attention, including both instances of beneficial scientific research, and instances of alleged ethical violations by those performing the tests. The fundamental properties of muscle physiology were determined with work done using frog muscles (including the force generating mechanism of all muscle,^[240] the length-tension relationship,^[241] and the force-velocity curve^[242]), and frogs are still the preferred model organism due to the long survival of muscles in vitro and the possibility of isolating intact single-fiber preparations (not possible in other organisms).^[243] Modern physical therapy and the understanding and treatment of muscular disorders is based on this work and subsequent work in mice (often engineered to express disease states such as muscular dystrophy).^[244] In February 1997 a team at the Roslin Institute in Scotland announced the birth of Dolly the sheep, the first mammal to be cloned from an adult somatic cell.^[34]

Concerns have been raised over the mistreatment of primates undergoing testing. In 1985 the case of Britches, a macaque monkey at the University of California, Riverside, gained public attention. He had his eyelids sewn shut and a sonar sensor on his head as part of an experiment to test sensory substitution devices for blind people. The laboratory was raided by Animal Liberation Front in 1985, removing Britches and 466 other animals.^[245] The National Institutes of Health conducted an eight-month investigation and concluded, however, that no corrective action was necessary.^[246] During the 2000s other cases have made headlines, including experiments at the University of Cambridge^[247] and Columbia University in 2002.^[248] In 2004 and 2005, undercover footage of staff of Covance's, a contract research organization that provides animal testing services, Virginia lab was shot by People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA). Following release of the footage, the U.S. Department of Agriculture fined Covance $8,720 for 16 citations, three of which involved lab monkeys; the other citations involved administrative issues and equipment.^[249][250]

Threats to researchers[edit]

Threats of violence to animal researchers are not uncommon.^[251]

In 2006, a primate researcher at the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) shut down the experiments in his lab after threats from animal rights activists. The researcher had received a grant to use 30 macaque monkeys for vision experiments; each monkey was anesthetized for a single physiological experiment lasting up to 120 hours, and then euthanized.^[252] The researcher's name, phone number, and address were posted on the website of the Primate Freedom Project. Demonstrations were held in front of his home. A Molotov cocktail was placed on the porch of what was believed to be the home of another UCLA primate researcher; instead, it was accidentally left on the porch of an elderly woman unrelated to the university. The Animal Liberation Front claimed responsibility for the attack.^[253] As a result of the campaign, the researcher sent an email to the Primate Freedom Project stating "you win", and "please don't bother my family anymore".^[254] In another incident at UCLA in June 2007, the Animal Liberation Brigade placed a bomb under the car of a UCLA children's ophthalmologist who experiments on cats and rhesus monkeys; the bomb had a faulty fuse and did not detonate.^[255]

In 1997 PETA filmed staff from Huntingdon Life Sciences, showing dogs being mistreated.^[256][257] The employees responsible were dismissed,^[258] with two given community service orders and ordered to pay £250 costs, the first lab technicians to have been prosecuted for animal cruelty in the UK.^[259] The Stop Huntingdon Animal Cruelty campaign used tactics ranging from non-violent protest to the alleged firebombing of houses owned by executives associated with HLS's clients and investors. The Southern Poverty Law Center, which monitors US domestic extremism, has described SHAC's modus operandi as "frankly terroristic tactics similar to those of anti-abortion extremists," and in 2005 an official with the FBI's counter-terrorism division referred to SHAC's activities in the United States as domestic terrorist threats.^[260][261] 13 members of SHAC were jailed for between 15 months and eleven years on charges of conspiracy to blackmail or harm HLS and its suppliers.^[262][263]

These attacks—as well as similar incidents that caused the Southern Poverty Law Center to declare in 2002 that the animal rights movement had "clearly taken a turn toward the more extreme"—prompted the US government to pass the Animal Enterprise Terrorism Act and the UK government to add the offense of "Intimidation of persons connected with animal research organisation" to the Serious Organised Crime and Police Act 2005. Such legislation and the arrest and imprisonment of activists may have decreased the incidence of attacks.^[264]

Alternatives to animal testing[edit]

Most scientists and governments state that animal testing should cause as little suffering to animals as possible, and that animal tests should only be performed where necessary. The "Three Rs"^[72][140] are guiding principles for the use of animals in research in most countries. Whilst replacement of animals, i.e. alternatives to animal testing, is one of the principles, their scope is much broader.^[265] Although such principles have been welcomed as a step forwards by some animal welfare groups,^[266] they have also been criticized as both outdated by current research,^[267] and of little practical effect in improving animal welfare.^[268]

The scientists and engineers at Harvard's Wyss Institute have created "organs-on-a-chip", including the "lung-on-a-chip" and "gut-on-a-chip". These tiny devices contain human cells in a 3-dimensional system that mimics human organs. The chips can be used instead of animals in in vitro disease research, drug testing, and toxicity testing.^[269] Researchers have also begun using 3-D bioprinters to create human tissues for in vitro testing.^[270]

Another non-animal research method is in silico or computer simulation and mathematical modeling which seeks to investigate and ultimately predict toxicity and drug affects in humans without using animals. This is done by investigating test compounds on a molecular level using recent advances in technological capabilities with the ultimate goal of creating treatments unique to each patient.^[271][272]

Microdosing is another alternative to the use of animals in experimentation. Microdosing is a process whereby volunteers are administered a small dose of a test compound allowing researchers to investigate its pharmacological affects without harming the volunteers. Microdosing can replace the use of animals in pre-clinical drug screening and can reduce the number of animals used in safety and toxicity testing.^[273]

Additional alternative methods include positron emission tomography (PET), which allows scanning of the human brain in vivo,^[274] and comparative epidemiological studies of disease risk factors among human populations.^[275]

Simulators and computer programs have also replaced the use of animals in dissection, teaching and training exercises.^[276][277]

Official bodies such as the European Centre for the Validation of Alternative Test Methods of the European Commission, the Interagency Coordinating Committee for the Validation of Alternative Methods in the US,^[278] ZEBET in Germany,^[279] and the Japanese Center for the Validation of Alternative Methods^[280] (among others) also promote and disseminate the 3Rs. These bodies are mainly driven by responding to regulatory requirements, such as supporting the cosmetics testing ban in the EU by validating alternative methods.

The European Partnership for Alternative Approaches to Animal Testing serves as a liaison between the European Commission and industries.^[281] The European Consensus Platform for Alternatives coordinates efforts amongst EU member states.^[282]

Academic centers also investigate alternatives, including the Center for Alternatives to Animal Testing at the Johns Hopkins University^[283] and the NC3Rs in the UK.^[284]

See also[edit]

References[edit]

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Bibliography[edit]

• Carbone, Larry (2004) What Animals Want. Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-516196-3.

Further reading[edit]

• Animalresearch.info, Scientific evidence in animal research


• Conn, P. Michael and Parker, James V (2008). The Animal Research War, Palgrave Macmillan, ISBN 978-0-230-60014-0


• Guerrini, Anita (2003). Experimenting with humans and animals: from Galen to animal rights. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-7197-2.


• Speaking of Research, Historical Statistics for animal research numbers 2012-2017, accessed 19 April 2018.


• 1940 American/Soviet film of dog resurrection experiments


• "Select Committee on Animals In Scientific Procedures Report", Select Committee on Animals in Scientific Procedures, British House of Lords, 16 July 2002, accessed 27 October 2005.


• "Biomed for the layperson", Laboratory Primate Advocacy Group, accessed 24 February 2006.


• In Focus "Animal Experiments in Research" (German Reference Centre for Ethics in the Life Sciences)


• Encyclopedia of Earth: Animal testing alternatives


• Go3R: semantic search to avoid animal experiments